Relative Dimensional Change Evaluation of Vacuum Heat-Treated JIS SKD61 Hot-Work Tool Steels

JIS SKD61 hot-work steel is usually used as precision mold material for die casting; hence, it demands a higher level of dimensional stability during the hardening process, especially for fairly large sections. This study investigates the microstructural evolution and measures the relative dimensional changes in various tempering states. The results show that the retained austenitic contents of all quenched and tempered SKD61 steel specimens were less than 2%. When the tempering temperature reached 500 °C, the retained austenitic content decreased from 1.35 to 0.45%. TEM investigations revealed that a large number of secondary carbides, molybdenum-rich M₂C and vanadium-rich MC carbides, precipitated near the dislocations when the tempering temperature reached 525 °C. A secondary hardening phenomenon and evident expansion phenomenon occurred as the tempering temperature exceeded 500 °C. These phenomena were mainly contributed by the precipitation of secondary carbides in hot-work steels. The reason is that only 0.9% of the retained austenite transformed into martensite as the tempering temperature reached 500 °C, allowing the hardness and dimensional change to be neglected.     

Effect of Tempering and Strain on Decomposition of Metastable Austenite in X210CrW12 Thixo-Cast Steel

Thixoforming of hot rolled X210CrW12tool steel led to the formation of globular austenitic grains (82.4 vol.%) surrounded by eutectic mixture (α-Fe and M₇C₃ carbides). The thixo-cast steel reached compression strength 4.8 GPa at plastic strain 34%. The analysis of pole figures after deformation indicated distinct texturization of microstructure in comparison with undeformed steel. Main texture components for austenite were {101}, 〈010〉, while ferrite did not reveal clearly formed orientation. DSC analysis confirmed that austenitic structure in the X210CrW12 steel was metastable and temperature of decomposition depended on the strain applied at 634 °C for the un-deformed sample and at 599 °C for sample compressed up to 4.8 GPa. Discontinuous transformation of austenite into perlite, that started mainly at grain boundaries and proceeded to the center, was the predominant mechanism responsible for the decomposition of globular grains in thixoformed X210CrW12 steel. The decomposition caused by tempering of supersaturated and severely strained steel led to obtaining characteristic product of transformation of higher hardness in comparison with only tempered sample. In the deformed sample the reaction started on slip bands and twins which revealed high density of defects, promoting precipitation of carbides, followed by local depletion in carbon as a result of α′- Fe formation. In contrast to non-deformed state they covered the area of grains. Two fronts of reaction α-Fe plate +M₃C → mixture of α-Fe and M₇C₃ carbides were also observed.     

The Kinetics of Phase Transformations During Tempering in Laser Melted High Chromium Cast Steel

The precipitation of secondary carbides in the laser melted high chromium cast steels during tempering at 300-650?°C for 2?h in air furnace was characterized and the present phases was identified, by using transmission electron microscopy. Laser melted high chromium cast steel consists of austenitic dendrites and interdendritic M₂₃C₆ carbides. The austenite has such a strong tempering stability that it remains unchanged at temperature below 400?°C and the secondary hardening phenomenon starts from 450?°C to the maximum value of 672 HV at 560?°C. After tempering at 450?°C fine M₂₃C₆ carbides precipitate from the supersaturated austenite preferentially. In addition, the dislocation lines and slip bands still exist inside the austenite. While tempering at temperature below 560?°C, the secondary hardening simultaneously results from the martensite phase transformation and the precipitation of carbides as well as dislocation strengthening within a refined microstructure. Moreover, the formation of the ferrite matrix and large quality of coarse lamellar M₃C carbides when the samples were tempered at 650?°C contributes to the decrease of hardness.     

Optimal heat treatment conditions and properties of bimetal (high Cr cast iron/alloyed steel) hammers

Abstract

This study intended to establish the optimal heat treatment conditions for the desired hardness and wear resistance property for the bimetal hammers developed by the authors. The objective of this study is to attain bimetal hammers that have a tough Cr–Ni alloyed steel shank and a high wear resistant high Cr cast iron head to replace conventional single alloy (high Mn steel) hammers. The results show that the optimal heat treatment condition obtained for the bimetal hammers is: destabilisation: 1000–1050°C for 2 h, quench: FAC and tempering: 480–500°C for 6 h. By employing this optimal heat treatment condition, the highest hardness value can be attained along with the best wear resistance property for the head portion and acceptable toughness for the shank portion. The microstructure of the head portion that corresponds to the optimal properties consists of eutectic M₇C₃ carbides, secondary M₇C₃ carbides, tempered martensite and almost nil retained austenite.     

Rapid Tempering of Martensitic Stainless Steel AISI420: Microstructure,Mechanical and Corrosion Properties

In this research, the effect of rapid tempering on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel has been investigated. At first, all test specimens were austenitized at 1050 °C for 1 h and tempered at 200 °C for 1 h. Then, the samples were rapidly reheated by a salt bath furnace in a temperature range from 300 to 1050 °C for 2 min and cooled in air. The tensile tests, impact, hardness and electrochemical corrosion were carried out on the reheated samples. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the microstructure and fracture surface. To investigate carbides, transmission electron microscopy and also scanning electron microscopy were used. X-ray diffraction was used for determination of the retained austenite. The results showed that the minimum properties such as the tensile strength, impact energy, hardness and corrosion resistance were obtained at reheating temperature of 700 °C. Semi-continuous carbides in the grain boundaries were seen in this temperature. Secondary hardening phenomenon was occurred at reheating temperature of 500 °C.     

Microstructure and Properties of Cast B-Bearing High Speed Steel

Microstructure, mechanical properties, and wear resistance of B-bearing high-speed steel (HSS) roll material containing 0.90-1.00% C, 1.3-1.5% B, 0.8-1.5% W, 0.8-1.5% Mo, 4.6-5.0% Cr, 1.0-1.2% V, and 0.15-0.20% Ti were studied by means of the optical microscopy (OM), the scanning electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), hardness, impact toughness, and pin-on-disk abrasion tests. The results showed that as-cast structure of B-bearing HSS consisted of α-Fe-, M₂₃(B,C)₆-, M₃(B_0.7C_0.3)-, and M₂(B,C)-type borocarbides, a small quantity of retained austenite, and a small amount of TiC. The hardness and impact toughness values of as-cast B-bearing HSS reached 65-67 HRC and 80-85 kJ/cm², respectively. There were many M₂₃(B,C)₆-precipitated phases in the matrix after tempering, and then, with increasing temperature, the amount of precipitated phases increased considerably. Hardness of B-bearing HSS gradually decreased with the increasing tempering temperature, and the change of tempering temperature had no obvious effect on impact toughness. B-bearing HSS tempered at 500 °C has excellent wear resistance, which can be attributed to the effect of boron.     

Effect of post-weld heat treatment on the wear resistance of hardfacing martensitic steel deposits

The effect of different post-weld heat treatments on the microstructure and wear resistance of martensitic deposits were studied. The deposit was welded using a metal-cored tubular wire, in the flat welding position, on a 375 × 75 × 19 mm SAE 1010 plate, using 98% Ar–2% CO₂ shielding gas mixture and with an average heat input of 2.8 kJ/mm. The samples were heat treated at temperatures between 500 and 680°C for 2 h. Chemical composition, Vicker's microhardness and wear properties with AMSLER tests in a sliding condition were determined. In the as welded condition, the microstructure was principally composed of martensite and retained austenite. Significant variations in wear resistance and hardness were measured for different tempering temperatures. For the different heat-treated conditions, it was observed that the decomposition of retained austenite to martensite and carbide precipitation was associated with the tempering of martensite. A secondary hardness effect was detected with maximum hardness of 710 HV for 550°C heat treatment temperature. The best performance in wear test was obtained for this condition. Wear rates for the different conditions were obtained and mathematical expressions were developed. For each case, wear mechanisms were analyzed.     

Kinetic Parameters of Secondary Carbide Precipitation in High-Cr White Iron Alloyed by Mn-Ni-Mo-V Complex

This study presents kinetics of precipitation of secondary carbides in 14.55%Cr-Mn-Ni-Mo-V white cast iron during the destabilization heat treatment. The as-cast iron was heat treated at temperatures in the range of 800-1100 °C with soaking up to 6 h. Investigation was carried out by optical and electron microscopy, dilatometric analysis, Ms temperature measurement, and bulk hardness evaluation. TTT-curve of precipitation process of secondary carbides (M₇C₃, M₂₃C₆, M₃C₂) has been constructed in this study. It was determined that the precipitation occurs at the maximum rate at 950 °C where the process is started after 10 s and completed within 160 min further. The precipitation leads to significant increase of Ms temperature and bulk hardness; large soaking times at destabilization temperatures cause coarsening of secondary carbides and decrease in particles number, followed by decrease in hardness. The results obtained are discussed in terms of solubility of carbon in the austenite and diffusion activation of Cr atoms. The precipitation was found to consist of two stages with activation energies of 196.5 kJ/g-mole at the first stage and 47.1 kJ/g-mole at the second stage.     

Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Bearing Steels Modified for Preparing Nanostructured Bainite

Mo containing high-C-Cr bearing steel was modified with Si (0.8–1.5 wt.%) and 0.8Si–1.0Al to prepare nanostructured bainite by low-temperature isothermal heat treatment. The modified steels were isothermal held at 220 to 240 °C after partial austenitization in an intercritical gamma+carbide region, and the resultant microstructure and mechanical properties were studied. Carbide-free nanostructured bainite with plate thickness below 100 nm and film retained austenite, as well as a small amount of undissolved carbide particles, was obtained in the modified steels except in 0.8Si steel, in which carbides precipitated in bainitic ferrite. As Si content increased, the mean thickness of bainitic ferrite plates modestly decreased, whereas the fraction of retained austenite markedly increased. The thickness of bainitic ferrite plate and the fraction of retained austenite in Si-Al-modified steel were smaller than those in Si-modified steels. The hardness and elongation of the Si-Al-modified steel were lower than those of Si-modified steels. The yield strength of Si-Al-modified steel was superior to that of Si-modified steels. Mid-level ultimate tensile strength and impact toughness were achieved in Si-Al-modified steel. For bearing applications, Si-modified steels could provide higher hardness and toughness but lower dimensional stability. Meanwhile, Si-Al-modified steel could offer higher dimensional stability but lower hardness and toughness.     

Effects of Sub-zero Celsius Treatment and Tempering on the Stability of Retained Austenite in Bearing Steel

In this work, the influence of sub-zero Celsius treatment and tempering on the mechanical and thermal stability of retained austenite in bearing steel were assessed by tensile test and DSC. Compared with traditional quenched and tempered treatment, sub-zero Celsius treatment obviously decreases the volume fraction of retained austenite. Moreover, the mechanical stability of retained austenite was enhanced due to the accumulation of compressive stresses in retained austenite after sub-zero Celsius treatment and tempering. Meanwhile, the morphology of retained austenite changed from film-like to blocky with austenitization temperature increasing, and the mechanical stability of film-like retained austenite is higher than that of blocky one. The DSC results showed that the activation energy of retained austenite decomposition slightly increased through sub-zero Celsius treatment and tempering. This result may probably be ascribed to partitioning of carbon during tempering. However, the temperature at which retained austenite starts to decompose is unchanged.     

Microstructure and rolling contact fatigue life of austenitic nitrocarburized STB 2 high carbon chromium bearing steel

Microstructures and rolling contact fatigue properties of STB 2 high carbon chromium bearing steel were investigated by means of electron microscopy, hardness tests and rolling contact fatigue tests. In order to examine the influence of the heat treatment process on microstructures and rolling contact fatigue, two kinds of heat treatment processes, quenching/tempering (QT) and austenitic nitrocarburizing were performed on STB 2 steel. Rolling contact fatigue life of the nitrocarburized steel was 3.7 times longer than that of the QT treated steel under a clean lubrication condition and was 1.5 times longer under a contaminated lubrication condition. The amount of retained austenite in the nitrocarburized steel was found to be larger than that in the QT treated steel. As the tempering temperature was increased from 150°C to 300°C, the decrease in hardness for the nitrocarburized steel was smaller than that of the QT treated steel. This means that the nitrocarburized steel is suitable as bearing material for high temperature applications. Very fine Fe₄(Fe(CN)₆)₃ carbonitride of less than l00nm in diameter was found in the nitrocarburized steel. An improvement in rolling contact fatigue life in the nitrocarburized steel was attributed to the combination of the formation of very fine Fe₄(Fe(CN)₆)₃ and retained austenite.     

Effect of cyclic treatment on the formation of a fragmented structure in a sparingly alloyed martensitic steel

Methods of metallography and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the structure of a high-alloy low-carbon steel of martensitic VKS-10 class subjected to cyclic treatment according to different regimes. It has been found that the warm deformation in the α state at 700°C causes the fragmentation of the structure; however, the decomposition of the α solid solution and the precipitation of coarse carbides leads to a significant decrease in the strength. It has been shown that 12 cycles of treatment, including austenitizing at 1000°C, rolling at 700°C, and subsequent γ → α transformation during rapid cooling do not lead to a noticeable fragmentation of the structure. It has been found that the deformation of the overcooled austenite by rolling carried out using 12 cycles in the range of temperatures of 700–500°C and subsequent γ → α transformation lead to the formation of a fragmented structure with a large fraction of fine grains with a size less than 0.5 μm. This treatment and the subsequent tempering at 530°C for 1 h allow us to increase the strength and hardness of the VKS-10 steel at an insignificant decrease in the plasticity.     

Modification of Low-Alloy Steel Surface by High-Temperature Gas Nitriding Plus Tempering

The low-alloy steel was nitrided in a pure NH₃ gas atmosphere at 640 ~ 660 °C for 2 h, i.e., high-temperature gas nitriding (HTGN), followed by tempering at 225 °C, which can produce a high property surface coating without brittle compound (white) layer. The steel was also plasma nitriding for comparison. The composition, microstructure and microhardness of the nitrided and tempered specimens were examined, and their tribological behavior investigated. The results showed that the as-gas-nitrided layer consisted of a white layer composed of FeN_0.095 phase (nitrided austenite) and a diffusional zone underneath the white layer. After tempering, the white layer was decomposed to a nano-sized (α-Fe + γ′-Fe₄N + retained austenite) bainitic microstructure with a high hardness of 1150HV/25 g. Wear test results showed that the wear resistance and wear coefficient yielded by the complex HTGN plus tempering were considerably higher and lower, respectively, than those produced by the conventional plasma nitriding.     

Carbide Precipitation Behavior and Wear Resistance of a Novel Roller Steel

High speed steel, which contains more alloy elements, cannot be used to manufacture the forged work roll. Therefore, a novel roller steel was designed on the basis of W6Mo5Cr4V2 (M2) steel. In this study, the carbide precipitation behavior and wear resistance of the novel roller steel were investigated. The Fe-C isopleths were calculated by Thermo-Calc to determine the carbide types, which were precipitated at different temperatures. The phase transformation temperatures were measured by differential scanning calorimeter and then the characteristic temperatures were designed. The phase structures quenched from the characteristic temperatures were measured by x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The typical microstructures were observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy with Energy Disperse Spectroscopy. The hardness and wear resistance of the novel roller steel were measured. The results show that the precipitation temperatures of austenite, MC, M₆C, M₂₃C₆, and ferrite are 1360, 1340, 1230, 926, and 843 °C respectively. When the specimen is quenched from 1300 °C, only MC precipitates from the matrix. At 1220 °C, MC and M₂C precipitate. At 1150 °C, all of MC, M₂C and M₆C precipitate. Relationship between mass fraction of different phases and temperature were also simulated by Thermo-Calc. The hardness of the novel roller steel is a little lower than that of M2 steel, however, the wear resistance of the novel roller steel is a little higher than that of M2 steel with the increase of wear time.     

Effect of single and double austenitization treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 16Cr-2Ni steel

Double austenitization (DA) treatment is found to yield the best combination of strength and toughness in both low-temperature as well as high-temperature tempered conditions as compared to single austenitization (SA) treatments. Obtaining the advantages of double austenitization (DA) to permit dissolution of alloy carbides without significant grain coarsening was attempted in AISI 431 type martensitic stainless steel. Structure-property correlation after low-temperature tempering (200 °C) as well as high-temperature double tempering (650+600 °C) was carried out for three austenitization treatments through SA at 1000 °C, SA at 1070 °C, and DA at 1070+1000 °C. While the increase in strength after DA treatment and low-temperature tempering at 200 °C is due to the increased amount of carbon in solution as a result of dissolution of alloy carbides during first austenitization, the increased toughness is attributable to the increased quantity of retained austenite. After double tempering (650+600 °C), strength and toughness are mainly found to depend on the precipitation and distribution of carbides in the microstructure and the grain size effect.     

The combined effect of cryogenic and boronising treatments on the wear behaviour and microstructure of DIN 1.2344 steel

In this study, the effects of cryogenic and boronising treatments on the wear behaviour and microstructure of 1.2344 steel were evaluated. X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy were used to investigate the microstructure, percentage of the retained austenite, and the carbides' morphology. In addition, a micro-hardness test and pin-on-disk wear method were utilised to assess the samples’ wear resistance. The results showed that the use of a cryogenic treatment improved hardness and wear resistance by 25% and 39%, respectively, compared with a quenching - tempering heat treatment. In addition, cryogenic and boronising treatments improved hardness and wear resistance by 228% and 75%, respectively, compared with a quenching - tempering heat treatment. The improvement in the properties of cryogenically treated and boronised-cryogenised samples in comparison with the quenched-tempered ones is due to the transformation of retained austenite to martensite, precipitation of fine carbides, and better carbide distribution. Also, the formation of the Fe₂B phase affected the properties of the boronised-cryogenised samples. Moreover, examining the wear levels revealed that the dominant wear mechanism is adhesive and tribochemical wear.     

Effect of Austenitizing Heat Treatment on the Microstructure and Hardness of Martensitic Stainless Steel AISI 420

The effect of austenitizing on the microstructure and hardness of two martensitic stainless steels was examined with the aim of supplying heat-treatment guidelines to the user that will ensure a martensitic structure with minimal retained austenite, evenly dispersed carbides and a hardness of between 610 and 740?HV (Vickers hardness) after quenching and tempering. The steels examined during the course of this examination conform in composition to medium-carbon AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel, except for the addition of 0.13% vanadium and 0.62% molybdenum to one of the alloys. Steel samples were austenitized at temperatures between 1000 and 1200?°C, followed by oil quenching. The as-quenched microstructures were found to range from almost fully martensitic structures to martensite with up to 35% retained austenite after quenching, with varying amounts of carbides. Optical and scanning electron microscopy was used to characterize the microstructures, and X-ray diffraction was employed to identify the carbide present in the as-quenched structures and to quantify the retained austenite contents. Hardness tests were performed to determine the effect of heat treatment on mechanical properties. As-quenched hardness values ranged from 700 to 270 HV, depending on the amount of retained austenite. Thermodynamic predictions (using the CALPHAD? model) were employed to explain these microstructures based on the solubility of the carbide particles at various austenitizing temperatures.     

Precipitation of Secondary Carbides in M2 High-Speed Steel Modified with Titanium diboride

The precipitation of the secondary carbides in high-speed steel of AISI M2 type modified with titanium diboride has been investigated for both the cast and the heat-treated states. The primary focus was on the effect of austenitizing temperatures on the secondary carbide precipitation during tempering. Some differences in origin of the secondary carbides, as well as in their shape and size distribution, were found in the tempered microstructure for the different austenitizing temperatures. After austenitization at 1180 °C and triple tempering at 560 °C, the secondary carbide particles of a spherical shape up to 200 nm in size were identified by selected area electron diffraction as M₂₃C₆. After austenitization at 1220 °C, two types of the secondary carbides were found in the tempered microstructure, M₂₃C₆ with a size up to 200 nm and M₆C with a size up to 400 nm. In both the cases, the carbide particles were slightly angular. After austenitization at 1260 °C, only M₆C secondary carbides were revealed in the tempered microstructure, which occurred as the angular particles up to 350 nm in size. In addition, considerably finer M₂₃C₆ carbide particles with a size of 10-40 nm were found to precipitate in the tempered microstructure.     

Microstructures and Hardness of 8CrWMoV Steel with Multiple Types of Ultra Fine Carbides

The structure and hardness of 8CrWMoV steel with multiple types of ultra fine carbides are studied after annealing, quenching and tempering in this paper. The results show that multiple types of carbides M3C, M7C3, M23C6, M6C and MC were observed in the annealed steel. Nucleation and coalescence of new carbides, partial dissolution of original carbides in 7 phase region during annealing at 800-840℃, result in ultra-fine carbides. Average size of the carbides is 0.33～0.34μm in the steel annealed at 800～840℃. Because M3C and M23C6 dissolve easily in austenite, the high hardness HRC63～65 can be obtained by quenching at 840～860℃. Un-dissolved carbides M6C and MC (VC) can effectively prevent the coarsening of austenitic grain, and conduce to obtain very fine martensite. The retained austenite can be easy to decompose during tempering at low and middle temperature due to the precipitation of multiple types of carbides and the good tempering-resistance of the steel is obtained. The microstructure and property of the steel after heat treatment can be accurately explained by calculating based on phase equilibrium thermodynamic.     

Ferrite-Martensite Band Formation During the Intercritical Annealing

Microstructural evolution during the intercritical annealing at 740 and 770 °C for 120-900 s in a low-carbon low-alloy steel from the initial martensitic matrix was studied by electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction. It was seen that during the intercritical annealing, the martensitic structure changes to the tempered martensite with carbides. The results depicted that the temperature and time of intercritical annealing influence significantly the distribution and amount of the formed carbides. Two types of austenite morphology were identified to grow simultaneously, i.e., globular and acicular. A longer annealing time led to the coarse globular and thick acicular austenite morphology. The austenite with globular morphology nucleated preferably at prior austenite grain boundary triple and quadruple junctions. The austenite with globular and acicular morphology was developed in Mn-rich and -poor regions, respectively. The globular austenite morphology intensified the banded microstructure of ferrite-martensite dual-phase steel, whereas the acicular austenite morphology led to a more isotropic microstructure. The experimental results illustrated that the intercritical temperature is a significant factor which can contribute to intensify the banded ferrite-martensite microstructure. The volume fractions of austenite with globular and acicular morphology were quantitatively measured. The volume fraction of globular to acicular morphology of austenite was high and low at 770 and 740 °C, respectively.