搅拌摩擦焊和钨极氩弧焊焊接接头的残余应力

利用X射线衍射法测量了铝合金搅拌摩擦焊和钨极氩弧焊(TIG)焊接接头表面的残余应力分布.结果表明:两种接头在焊缝区及其周围的残余应力存在着明显的变化,在平行于焊缝方向,应力呈"W"型的分布,焊缝外残余应力值迅速下降;钨极氩弧焊焊接接头残余应力的最大值位于热影响区;在热影响区,搅拌摩擦焊接接头残余应力平均值比TIG焊接接头的约低15%～25%.     

材料性能对搅拌摩擦焊焊缝成形的影响

采用左螺纹圆柱搅拌头对O态和T4态2024铝合金进行搅拌摩擦焊接试验,研究了材料性能对搅拌摩擦焊焊缝成形的影响,并用软性约束分析了材料性能对焊核尺寸的影响。试验结果表明：焊缝形貌受焊核周边金属约束的影响,约束程度与材料力学性能和温度有关。O态2024铝合金对接焊时,软性约束体对塑性金属横向迁移的约束小,焊核面积和焊核宽度较T4态2024铝合金的焊核面积和焊核宽度大。两种热处理状态2024铝合金对接焊时,强度和硬度较高的T4态2024铝合金置于返回边时,在焊缝两侧、前进边的软性约束体对塑性金属的约束较返回边的软性约束体对塑性金属的约束强,焊核向返回边偏移;由于在返回边有更多的塑性金属,使其沿焊缝厚度方向向上的运动趋势增强,因此返回边的焊核高度较前进边的焊核高度高。对T4态2024铝合金进行适当的预热,会增强焊缝金属的塑化程度,使其向焊缝两侧的迁移运动趋势增强,焊核宽度及面积增大。     

Microstructural and mechanical properties of dissimilar friction stir welds between AA6082-T6 and AA7075-T651

In the present work, similar and dissimilar friction stir welds have been produced on 6-mm-thick plates of AA6082-T6 and AA7075-T651. The microstructural characteristics and the mechanical response of both similar and dissimilar welds were investigated aiming to determine the major differences between them. Material mixing of the dissimilar weld nugget, which was created after the welding process, was studied in order to determine the produced different areas and their dominant alloying elements in this zone. Microstructural investigation was made in the welding zones of similar and dissimilar friction stir welds and indications of partial dynamic recrystallization were observed in the thermomechanically affected zone of the similar welds. Transverse and longitudinal microhardness distributions determined the heat affected zone as the weaker area in the welded specimen. After tensile testing, the fracture of the similar and the dissimilar welds at heat affected zone demonstrated the good bonding and weld quality of the similar and dissimilar weld nuggets.     

Research on the mechanism of flash line defect in coining

In the present article, the effect of friction stir welding (FSW) parameters on the weldability and the characteristics of dissimilar weld of aluminum alloys, called AA2024-T4 and AA7075-O are investigated. A number of FSW experiments are carried out to obtain high-quality welds by adjusting the rotational and welding speeds. The weldability and blending of two materials are evaluated by using the macrostructural analysis to observe whether making a notch in a threaded cylindrical tool will lead to a better blend rather than the threaded taper tool or it will have no effects. The mechanical properties of the welds are studied through microhardness distribution and tensile tests. Furthermore, the microstructure analysis is performed to study the influence of the pin profile and the rotational speed on the grain size. Moreover, in the present study, one of the most major goals is to obtain high-quality welds by spending as little expenditure as possible. Therefore, it prevents using complicated and insupportable high welding speed equipments.     

Residual stresses in friction stir welded parts of complex geometry

Residual stresses play a key role on the mechanics underlying the fatigue crack growth propagation of welded joints. Indeed, compressive residual stresses may induce a beneficial enhancement of the fatigue life under loading condition whereas tensile residual stresses may act to increase the stress distribution at crack tip, resulting in a life-threatening condition of the welded structure. In-process distortion and final geometry of welded joints are also affected by residual stresses. In this paper, the longitudinal residual stress distributions in friction stir welding (FSW) joints were investigated for butt and skin–stringer geometries, including lap and T configurations. To measure residual stresses, the cut-compliance and the inverse weight-function methodologies were adapted for skin–stringer FSW geometries via finite element analysis. AA2024-T4 and AA7075-T6 aluminum alloys were used to weld dissimilar skin–stringer joints whereas butt joints were made of AA2024. The effect of most relevant process parameters as well as the cooling during welding process was also investigated for a better understanding of welding residual stresses. Our findings suggest that FSW of complex skin–stringer geometries produces higher residual stresses than those of butt joints, and that the cooling water flux further reduces residual stresses. Changes of process parameters did not affect markedly residual stress distribution.     

搅拌摩擦焊下压力控制系统的开发及在模拟非刚性环境下的验证试验

搅拌摩擦焊接(Friction stir welding, FSW)是材料固态连接新技术,但FSW在焊接过程中一般会对工件施加较大的下压力,焊接设备和被焊工件在下压力的作用下均可能产生变形,使得常规FSW中设定的下压量这一关键参数偏离预期值,无法保证焊接工艺的稳定性。为了解决这一问题,开发一套下压力反馈控制系统,通过调节搅拌头对工件的下压量来调节下压力,使焊接过程中下压力保持稳定。该系统使用一台计算机作为顶层控制器,根据压力传感器反馈的实时下压力调节FSW设备Z轴的进给。使用该系统在悬空的钢板上焊接6082-T6铝合金平板对接焊缝,焊接过程中工件在下压力的作用下产生的弯曲变形高达0.931 mm,但所得的焊缝成形良好,沿焊缝方向不同位置的接头的横截面形貌基本一致,其横向拉伸应力应变曲线高度重合,接头的平均抗拉强度为222.8 MPa。结果表明,工件在下压力作用下产生变形的条件下,下压力控制的FSW系统仍能保证工艺稳定性。     

搅拌摩擦焊缝类型对接头拉伸性能及断裂特征的影响

采用三种不同针长的搅拌头对6082-T6铝合金板材进行焊接,获取三种类型的焊缝,即未透对接焊缝、已透对接焊缝和对-搭组合焊缝,通过对焊缝金相观察、拉伸测试和断口分析,得到焊缝类型对接头拉伸性能及断裂特征的影响规律。不同类型焊缝的表面成形区别不大,但内部成形各有特点。未透对接焊缝根部界面处形成未焊合缺陷;已透对接焊缝中无缺陷;对-搭组合焊缝后退侧和前进侧形成“钩状”缺陷。拉伸测试表明,未透对接接头拉伸性能最低,裂纹在未焊合处产生并沿焊核区扩展,接头下部呈现剪切断裂特征,接头上部呈现准解理和剪切混合断裂特征;已透对接接头拉伸性能最高,断裂位置位于前进侧热机影响区,断口呈现出典型的剪切断裂特征;对-搭组合接头拉伸性能居中,裂纹在前进侧“钩状”缺陷处产生并沿焊核区扩展,断口形貌与未透对接接头相似。     

Welding of thin sheet of Al alloy (6082) by using Vario wire DC P-GMAW

This paper describes an investigation on the micro-structure, weld bead geometry, dilution rate and mechanical properties of the butt and overlap weld joints of 1-mm-thick 6082 aluminium alloy sheet. Weld joints were produced with the help of a variant of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, i.e. direct current-pulsed GMAW (DC P-GMAW), using a Vario wire. The capability of the new process has been assessed in terms of dilution, weld bead geometry, mechanical properties and porosity. The welding results with this new process showed good process stability in the welding of thin sheets of aluminium, while weld mismatch was found to increase with an increase in heat input. Weld bead geometry parameters such as weld size, throat and weld convexity increases with the increase in heat input. The dilution in case of lap joints (10–25%) was less than that of butt joints (60–80%). The increase in factor Φ (summarizing the effect of pulse parameters) increases the form factor and lowers the toe angle. Mechanical properties of the welds are poor as the tensile strength of 6082 alloy welds was around 150 MPa, and the percent elongation was about 1.3%, and it was primarily due to high porosity. Porosity (%) in weld joints was found in the range of 0.33–11.59%. The porosity is a major issue with DC P-GMAW welds.     

Multi-response optimization using the Taguchi-based grey relational analysis: a case study for dissimilar friction stir butt welding of AA6082-T6/AA5754-H111

This paper presents a multi-response optimization process for dissimilar friction stir welding of AA6082/AA5754 aluminum alloys. An L₉ orthogonal array was constituted for the experiments. Three welding parameters—tool shoulder diameter-to-pin diameter (D/d) ratio, tool rotational speed (TRS), and welding speed (WS)—were associated with tensile strength and elongation. An optimization process was started to determine the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. Grey relational analyses were performed utilizing the S/N ratio. According to the results of a series of analyses, the optimal welding condition was determined as 4 for D/d, 1,000 rpm for TRS, and 100 mm/min for WS. The analysis of variance results showed that all the welding parameters are statistically significant at 95 % confidence level. Additionally, the joint efficiency of welding fabricated at the optimal condition was compared for both AA6082 and AA5754. This revealed that the joint efficiency is 66 % for AA6082 and 92 % for AA5754.     

A study on natural aging behavior and mechanical properties of friction stir-welded AA6061-T6 plates

Mechanical properties, microstructural events, residual stresses, and aging behavior of friction stir-welded AA6061-T6 were investigated in this work. Microstructural and mechanical characterizations of the friction stir-welded joints in as-welded and post-welded conditions were made by means of optical metallography, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction for determination of residual stresses, tensile testing, and hardness measurements. It was found that weld strength and hardness variations after welding are mainly dependent on the imposed heat input per unit length. Besides, the kinetics of natural aging in the welded samples was found to be noticeable within the first 14 days, and its effect decreases considerably in longer aging durations. The residual stress measurements show that subsequent natural aging leads to considerable relaxation of residual stress of about 22 MPa, while this effect is particularly significant in the stir zone and the thermomechanically affected zone.     

温度对搅拌摩擦焊接接头摩擦磨损性能的影响

通过对搅拌摩擦焊过程中铝合金板上各特征点在不同焊接参数的温度变化规律的检测,研究搅拌摩擦焊接参数对焊接过程温度场的影响,搅拌摩擦焊焊接接头的摩擦磨损行为,以及搅拌摩擦焊接头的摩擦磨损性能随温度的变化趋势。结果表明:在搅拌头旋转速度一定时,各特征点的温度峰值会随焊接速度的增加而降低,在焊接速度一定时,特征点的温度峰值会随搅拌头旋转速度的增加而升高;搅拌摩擦焊接头磨损表面呈现轻微的疲劳磨损特征,无明显的表层剥落开裂迹象;试样的磨损量与接头区域的焊缝成型有密切关系,而焊缝的成型质量与温度场的分布有密切联系,试验表明温度场梯度越小,磨损量越小。     

Weld temperature effects during friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys 6061-t6 and 7075-t6

The objective of this work is to establish nominal friction stir [butt] welding process parameters for joining 4.76-mm-thick aluminum alloys 6061-T6 and 7075-T6 and to improve the joint quality via programmed tool offsets. In addition, dynamic tool–workpiece interface temperatures are measured during welding and used to explain the effects of alloy placement and weld tool offset from the joint. Weld tool offsets into the retreating side AA7075 increase the measured tensile strength of the dissimilar joint. The increased joint strength is facilitated by lower average weld temperatures with increasing amount of AA7075 stirred into the nugget.     

Influences of tool pin profile and axial force on the formation of friction stir processing zone in AA6061 aluminium alloy

AA6061 aluminium alloy (Al-Mg-Si alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance. Compared to the fusion welding processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys, the friction stir welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material that is being welded does not melt and recast. This process uses a non-consumable tool to generate frictional heat in the abutting surfaces. The welding parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force etc., and the tool pin profile plays a major role in deciding the weld quality. In this investigation an attempt has been made to understand the effect of axial force and tool pin profiles on FSP zone formation in AA6061 aluminium alloy. Five different tool pin profiles (straight cylindrical, tapered cylindrical, threaded cylindrical, triangular and square) have been used to fabricate the joints at three different axial force levels. The formation of FSP zone has been analysed macroscopically. Tensile properties of the joints have been evaluated and correlated with the FSP zone formation. From this investigation it is found that the square tool pin profile produces mechanically sound and metallurgically defect free welds compared to other tool pin profiles.     

Thermo-mechanical finite element model of friction stir welding of dissimilar alloys

A thermo-mechanical finite element model is developed based on Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian method to simulate the friction stir welding of dissimilar Al6061-T6 and Al5083-O aluminum alloys using different tool pin profiles. The model is validated using published measured temperatures and weld microstructure. The finite element results show that maximum temperatures at the weld joint were below the materials’ melting point. Placing the harder alloy (Al6061-T6) at advancing side led to a decrease in maximum process temperature and strain rate, but increased tool reaction loads. Featured tool pin produced better material mixing resulting in enhanced joint quality with reduced volumetric defects.     

Analysis of transient temperature and residual thermal stresses in friction stir welding of aluminum alloy 6061-T6 via numerical simulation

Residual stress is lower in friction stir welding (FSW) compared with other melting weldment processes. This is due to being solid-state process in its nature. There are several advantages in utilizing stir welding process. Lower fluctuation and shrinkage in weldment metal-enhanced mechanical characteristics, less defects, and ability to weld certain metals otherwise impractical by other welding processes are to name just a few of these advantages. These have caused an ever increasing attention by the concerned to the process of FSW. In this investigation, three-dimensional numerical simulation of friction stir welding was concerned to study the impact of tool moving speed in relation with heat distribution as well as residual stress. Simulation was composed of two stages. Firstly, thermal behavior of the piece while undergoing the welding process was studied. Heat is generated due to the friction between tool and the piece being welded. In the second stage, attained thermal behavior of the piece from previous stage is considered as inlet heat of an elasto-plastic, thermo-mechanical model for the prediction of residual stress. Also, in the second stage, tool is eliminated and residual stress distribution is found after complete cooling of the piece and disassembly of the clamp. Material characteristic are introduced into the proposed model as temperature-dependent parameters. Obtained residual indicate that heat distribution along thickness varies and is asymmetrical enormously. Moreover, longitudinal residual stress in the weld which increases as speed of process and tool movement ascends. In the prediction of results of residual stress, only heat impact was studied. This was recognized as the main element causing minor difference in results obtained for simulation in comparison with that of actual experiment.     

Investigating the formation of intermetallic compounds during friction stir welding of magnesium alloy to aluminum alloy in air and under liquid nitrogen

This research demonstrates the use of submerged friction stir welding under liquid nitrogen as an alternative and improved method for creating fine-grained welds, and hence, to alleviate formation of intermetallic phases. Magnesium alloy and aluminum alloy were joined by friction stir welding in two environments, namely air and liquid nitrogen, with 400 rpm rotation and 50 mm/min travel speed. The temperature profile, microstructure, scanning electron microscope energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis and hardness were evaluated. In the stir zone of air-welded specimen, formation of brittle intermetallic compounds causes the weld to crack. These phases were formed because of constitutional liquation. The stir zone of under liquid nitrogen-welded specimen showed that formation of intermetallic compounds is suppressed significantly because of lower heat input.     

Predictions of the optimized friction stir spot welding process parameters for joining AA2024 aluminum alloy using RSM

The friction stir spot welding process (FSSW) is a variant of the linear friction stir welding process in which the material is being welded without bulk melting. The FSSW parameters such as tool rotational speed, plunge rate, plunge depth, and dwell time play a major role in determining the strength of the joints. A central composite rotatable design with four factors and five levels was chosen to minimize the number of experimental conditions. An empirical relationship was established to predict the tensile shear fracture load of friction stir spot-welded AA2024 aluminum alloy by incorporating independently controllable FSSW process parameters. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the FSSW parameters to attain maximum lap shear strength of the spot weld.     

A study on electromagnetic property during friction stir weld failure

Electromagnetic radiation is emitted during the transient stage of elastic to plastic deformation of metals and alloys. In the present work, aluminium plates were welded by friction stir welding (FSW) at different process parameters, such as tool rotational speed, traverse speed and rake angle. The EMR fundamental frequencies emitted during the tensile failure of the welds were measured and recorded. The variation in the fundamental frequency was analysed by fuzzy modelling using MATLAB and it was observed that an increase in the first mode of metal transfer decreases the fundamental frequency. Further, the fundamental frequency of a weld was estimated from the obtained model and found to be closer to the experimental results. This work will be more useful for metal flow analysis as well as online condition monitoring of the welds which are used in critical applications.     

Effect of welding processes on tensile properties of AA6061 aluminium alloy joints

The present investigation is aimed at to study the effect of welding processes such as GTAW, GMAW and FSW on mechanical properties of AA6061 aluminium alloy. The preferred welding processes of these alloys are frequently gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) due to their comparatively easier applicability and better economy. In this alloy, the weld fusion zones typically exhibit coarse columnar grains because of the prevailing thermal conditions during weld metal solidification. This often causes inferior weld mechanical properties and poor resistance to hot cracking. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid phase welding technique developed primarily for welding metals and alloys that heretofore had been difficult to weld using more traditional fusion techniques. Rolled plates of 6 mm thickness have been used as the base material for preparing single pass butt welded joints. The filler metal used for joining the plates is AA4043 (Al-5Si (wt%)) grade aluminium alloy. In the present work, tensile properties, micro hardness, microstructure and fracture surface morphology of the GMAW, GTAW and FSW joints have been evaluated, and the results are compared. From this investigation, it is found that FSW joints of AA6061 aluminium alloy showed superior mechanical properties compared with GTAW and GMAW joints, and this is mainly due to the formation of very fine, equiaxed microstructure in the weld zone.     

Effective predictions of ultimate tensile strength,peak temperature and grain size of friction stir welded AA2024 alloy joints

A series of welds were made by friction stir welding (FSW) under different welding and rotation speeds. A 2D ultimate tensile strength (UTS) map was developed based on various experimental data to predict the UTS of friction stir welded AA2024 alloy joints. The accuracy of the UTS map was evaluated by comparing the estimated UTS with the corresponding experimental results from the FSW of the same material available in the open literature. Analytical models were developed to estimate the peak temperature and grain size in the nugget zone. The predicted optimal peak temperature and welding and rotation speeds for AA2024 were within the windows of 400–465 °C, 175–350 mm/min and 800–1,200 rpm, respectively, under which the joint tensile strength could be higher than 458 MPa (about 94.6 % of the base metal) and the estimated average grain sizes in the nugget zone were about 2–3.9 μm.