On enhancement of hypoeutectic aluminium–silicon powder metallurgy alloy

Abstract

Currently, there exists a considerable demand within the automotive industry for the development of aluminium–silicon alloys that can be processed through powder metallurgy (PM) technologies. As such, a study aimed at the development of a new hypoeutectic aluminium–silicon PM alloy (Al–6Si–4·5Cu–0·5Mg–0·2Sn) was recently undertaken. Although the preliminary data were encouraging, it was postulated that a refinement of the bulk alloy chemistry could yield additional gains. In the present work, the sintering response mechanical properties of this alloy were enhanced by making controlled adjustments in composition. The influence of the amount and raw powdered sources of copper, magnesium and tin were the principal variables investigated. Using XRD and metallographic examination, it was determined that a decrease in the copper content to 3·0 wt-% improved ductility significantly. Furthermore, the incorporation of magnesium as an elemental powder versus an Al–Mg master alloy improved sintering behaviour significantly, while tin additions up to 0·2 wt-% increased yield stress and hardness. The optimised alloy exhibited a threefold increase in ductility as well as a 25% gain in yield strength.

Présentement, il existe une grande demande dans l’industrie de l’automobile pour le développement d’alliages aluminium silicium qu’on peut obtenir par les techniques de métallurgie des poudres (PM). Ainsi, on a récemment entrepris une étude visant au développement d’un nouvel alliage hypoeutectique aluminium silicium (Al-6Si-4·5Cu-0·5Mg-0·2Sn) par PM. Bien que les données préliminaires soient encourageantes, on a postulé qu’un raffinement de la chimie de l’alliage brut pourrait produire des gains additionnels. Dans le présent travail, on a amélioré les propriétés mécaniques de la réponse au frittage de cet alliage en faisant des ajustements contrôlés de la composition. L’influence de la quantité et l’influence des sources de poudres brutes de cuivre, de magnésium et d’étain étaient les principales variables examinées. En utilisant la XRD et l’examen métallographique, on a déterminé qu’une diminution de la teneur en cuivre à une valeur de 3·0% en poids améliorait significativement la ductilité. De plus, l’incorporation du magnésium comme poudre élémentaire par rapport à un alliage maître d’Al-Mg améliorait significativement le comportement de frittage, alors que des additions d’étain jusqu’à 0·2% en poids augmentaient la limite élastique et la dureté. L’alliage optimisé exhibait une augmentation triple de la ductilité ainsi qu’un gain de 25% de la limite d’élasticité.     

On development of hypoeutectic aluminium–silicon powder metallurgy alloy

Abstract

Powder metallurgy allows for the rapid, automated and efficient production of many different types of automotive components. However, a drawback is the limited selection of readily available light alloy blends. Owing to the wide spread use of aluminium–silicon casting alloys for existing components it is logical to develop aluminium–silicon PM options. Therefore, an experimental hypoeutectic aluminium–silicon alloy was chosen for study and an optimum processing route developed. Tests were performed to determine the green strength and density as a function of compaction pressure. Sintering conditions were optimised based on sintered density, hardness and dimensional changes. Metallography, differential scanning calorimetry and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis provided insight into post-sinter furnace cooling and heat treatment parameters. An appropriate T6 heat treatment was developed and samples were tested in tension. The alloy was able to achieve a high sintered density approaching 98% and a yield strength of 232 MPa under the T6 condition.     

On development of press and sinter Al–Ni–Mg powder metallurgy alloys

Abstract

The objective of this research was to initiate the development of powder metallurgy alloys based on the Al–Ni–Mg system. In doing so, binary (Al–Mg) and ternary (Al–Ni–Mg) blends were prepared, compacted and sintered using elemental and master alloy feedstock powders. Research began with fundamental studies on the sintering response of the base aluminium powder with additions of magnesium. This element proved essential to the development of a well sintered microstructure while promoting the formation of a small nodular phase that appeared to be AlN. In Al–Ni–Mg systems a well sintered structure comprised of α aluminium plus NiAl₃ was produced at the higher sintering temperatures investigated. Of these ternary alloys studied, Al–15Ni–1Mg exhibited mechanical properties that were comparable with existing commercial 'press and sinter' alloys. The processing, reaction sintering and tensile properties of this alloy were also found to be reproducible in an industrial production environment.     

Isothermal oxidation behaviour of beta gamma powder metallurgy TiAl–4Nb–3Mn alloys

Abstract

A new TiAl–4Nb–3Mn beta gamma alloy was synthesised by a powder metallurgy process. HIPed and vacuum heat treated specimens were isothermally oxidised at 800 and 900°C in air up to 500 h. The TiAl–4Nb–3Mn alloys oxidised parabolically up to 500 h at both 800 and 900°C. The oxides consisted of outer TiO₂ layer, intermediate Al₂O₃ layer and inner TiO₂ rich mixed layer and the oxidation mechanisms of the alloy were identical at both temperatures. During oxidation, the degradation of α₂ lamellae in the vicinity of the interface forms a diffusion zone (lamellar depleted zone) leading to the formation of Nb and Mn rich white layers just below the interface by outward diffusion of Nb and Mn which are released from breakdown of α₂ lamellae. As exposure time increases, Nb begins to diffuse earlier than Mn and diffuses more actively at higher temperature. The activation energy for oxidation of TiAl–4Nb–3Mn alloy was lower than that of Ti–48Al alloy and was higher than those of Ti–48Al–2Nb–2Cr and Ti–48Al–2Nb–2Cr–W alloys.

On a synthétisé un nouvel alliage TiAl–4Nb–3Mn de type bêta gamma par un procédé de métallurgie des poudres. On a oxydé en isotherme à 800 et à 900°C à l’air, jusqu’à une durée de 500 heures, les spécimens pressés par HIP et traités thermiquement sous vide. Les alliages de TiAl-4Nb-3Mn s’oxydaient paraboliquement jusqu’à 500 heures tant à 800°C qu’à 900°C. Les oxydes consistaient en une couche externe de TiO₂, en une couche intermédiaire d’Al₂O₃ et en une couche interne mixe riche en TiO₂ et les mécanismes d’oxydations de l’alliage étaient identiques aux deux températures. Lors de l’oxydation, la dégradation de lamelles d’α₂ dans le voisinage de l’interface forme une zone de diffusion (zone lamellaire appauvrie) menant à la formation de couches blanches riches en Nb et en Mn juste au-dessous de l’interface par diffusion vers l’extérieur du Nb et du Mn, qui sont relâchés par la dégradation des lamelles d’α₂. À mesure que la durée de l’exposition augmente, le Nb commence à se diffuser plus tôt que le Mn et se diffuse plus activement à une température plus élevée. L’énergie d’activation pour l’oxydation de l’alliage de TiAl–4Nb–3Mn était plus basse que celle de l’alliage de Ti–48Al et était plus élevée que celle des alliages de Ti–48Al–2Nb–2Cr et de Ti–48Al–2Nb–2Cr–W.     

Microstructural characterisation of Ti–Nb–(Fe–Cr) alloys obtained by powder metallurgy

Abstract

β alloys based on the Ti–Nb alloy system are of growing interest to the biomaterial community. The addition of small amounts of Fe and Cr further increases β-phase stability, improving the properties of Ti–Nb alloy. However, PM materials sintered from elemental powders are inhomogeneous due to restricted solid state diffusion and mechanical alloying provides a route to enhance mixing and elemental diffusion. The microstructural characteristics and bend strength of Ti–Nb–(Fe–Cr) alloys obtained from elemental powder mixture and mechanical alloyed powders are compared. Mechanical alloying gives more homogeneous compositions and particle morphology, characterised by rounded, significantly enlarged particles. In the sintered samples α and β phase are observed. The α phase appears at the grain boundaries and in lamellae growing inward from the edge, and is depleted in Nb. The β phase is enriched with Nb, Fe and Cr. The addition of Fe and Cr significantly increases the mechanical properties of Ti–Nb alloys, providing increased ductility.     

Development of the as-cast microstructure in magnesium–aluminium alloys

This paper presents an overview of several projects undertaken at CAST to increase our understanding of the solidification characteristics of Mg–Al alloys. With the increased use of magnesium alloys, and with casting dominating as a production route, there is a need for a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms of solidification and defect formation to allow further optimisation of alloys and casting processes. The paper starts with considering the formation of the primary magnesium dendrites and the means for grain refinement of magnesium–aluminium alloys. The Mg–Al system is then shown to display a range of eutectic morphologies for increasing aluminium content, ranging from a divorced structure, through several intermediate structures, to a fully lamellar structure at the eutectic composition. The eutectic also influences discontinuous precipitation which occurs in the aluminium-rich regions of the magnesium phase. The paper concludes with a section on porosity formation as a function of aluminium content and an outline of the mechanism responsible for the formation of banded defects in magnesium alloys, particularly in products made in pressure assisted casting processes.     

The plastic anisotropy of two-phase aluminium alloys—I. Anisotropy in unidirectional deformation

The changes in plastic anisotropy which accompany precipitation from a supersaturated solid solution have been investigated in textured polycrystals of three different aluminium alloys. Plastic behaviour was measured in unidirectional straining by uniaxial tension and by plane strain compression. Plastic anisotropies in the solution treated conditions were well predicted by the Taylor/Bishop and Hill model of polycrystalline plasticity used in conjunction with a series expansion method of treating the crystal orientation distribution. Significant deviations from these predicted anisotropies resulted from the introduction of semi-coherent precipitates, although the textures of the primary phases were unchanged by the ageing treatments. It is shown that changes in plastic anisotropy caused by precipitation can be explained satisfactorily by two different continuum models. The first of these, due to Hosford and Zeisloft, assumes plastic deformation of the second phase. The second model, introduced here, is based essentially on the adaptation of the transformation problem solutions of Eshelby made by Brown and Stobbs: it assumes deformation of the precipitate is elastic. It is concluded that selection of the more appropriate model requires that additional evidence be taken into account For the case of semi-coherent precipitates in the aluminium alloys investigated, the elastic inclusion model is more realistic. However, direct evidence of the magnitude of the internal stresses generated during plastic deformation is required to test some of the assumptions implicit in the simple form of the elastic inclusion model.     

Microstructure evolution and densification behaviour of powder metallurgy Al–Cu–Mg–Si alloy

ABSTRACT

An Al–Cu–Mg–Si alloy was prepared by conventional press-sintering powder metallurgy using elemental Al powder. The phase transformation process of Al–Mg, Al–Si alloy and Cu during the sintering process was investigated in details. It was found that a series of phase transitions take place in the alloy to disrupt the oxide film of Al particle and enhance the densification process. The relative density of the sintered samples reached 98%. A new Al–Mg–Cu–O compound was found at the grain boundaries except the MgAl₂O₄ phase, it is speculated that the disruption of the oxide film was also associated with the other alloy compositions except for Mg. Furthermore, no detectable AlN compound was found at the grain boundary region although sintering with flowing nitrogen atmosphere, which is benefit from the high density of the green compact and the excellent wettability between the liquid phase and the aluminium.     

Iron–manganese: new class of metallic degradable biomaterials prepared by powder metallurgy

Abstract

An Fe–35 wt-%Mn alloy, aimed to be used as a metallic degradable biomaterial for stent applications, was prepared via a powder metallurgy route. The effects of processing conditions on the microstructure, mechanical properties, magnetic susceptibility and corrosion behaviour were investigated and the results were compared to those of the SS316L alloy, a gold standard for stent applications. The Fe35Mn alloy was found to be essentially austenitic with fine MnO particles aligned along the rolling direction. The alloy is ductile with a strength approaching that of wrought SS316L. It exhibits antiferromagnetic behaviour and its magnetic susceptibility is not altered by plastic deformation, providing an excellent MRI compatibility. Its corrosion rate was evaluated in a modified Hank's solution, and found superior to that of pure iron (slow in vivo degradation rate). In conclusion, the mechanical, magnetic and corrosion characteristics of the Fe35Mn alloy are considered suitable for further development of a new class of degradable metallic biomaterials.     

Investigation of the microstructure of the Al–Si eutectic in binary aluminium–7 wt% silicon alloys by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)

Binary aluminium–7 wt% silicon alloys with and without strontium modification have been cast with a cooling rate of 0.2–0.6°C/s. The level of impurities has been kept at a minimum. The crystallographic orientation of the dendritic and eutectic aluminium as well as the eutectic silicon has been studied using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The crystallographic orientation of the aluminium within the eutectic is found to be strongly influenced by the orientation of neighbouring dendrites in unmodified and Sr-modified alloys. The crystallographic orientation of the silicon phase in the eutectic shows that silicon flakes/fibers within one eutectic colony can often be related to each other by the misorientation characteristic of twinning. Within one Sr-modified eutectic colony, silicon fibers are often found to have a common 〈1 1 0〉 direction. Aluminium has been found to have a 〈1 0 0〉 or a 〈1 1 0〉 direction parallel to the 〈1 1 0〉 direction of the Si fibers.     

Friction and wear behaviours of surface densified powder metallurgy Fe–2Cu–0.6C material

Surface rolling was employed to fabricate a densified layer on a powder metallurgy (PM) Fe–2Cu–0.6C piece. A densified surface layer with a depth of 335?μm and a surface hardness of 330?HV_0.1 was obtained, in which the lamellar spacing of pearlite and grain size of ferrite were refined. Friction and wear behaviours of the surface densified material were studied. Results indicated that friction coefficient of the rolled material decreased as the load increased, which was lower than that of the un-rolled material. Wear volumes were lower than that of the un-rolled material, which increased as the load increased. Wear loss was caused by flake spalling and grooves, and the wear mechanism mainly was abrasive wear. The surface densified layer with higher hardness and lower porosity can hinder the cracks initiation and propagation on the surface and under the surface, which enhance the wear resistance of the PM material.     

Tribological properties of the babbit B83–based composite materials fabricated by powder metallurgy

Technological processes are developed to fabricate composite materials based on B83 babbit using hot pressing of a mixture of powders in the presence of a liquid phase. As a result, the structure of the matrix B83 alloy is dispersed, the morphology of intermetallic phases is changed, and reinforcing micro- and nanosized fillers are introduced and uniformly distributed in the matrix. The tribological properties of the synthesized materials are studied. The friction of the B83 babbit + 0.5 wt % MSR + 3 wt % SiC (MSR is modified schungite rock) composite material at high loads is characterized by an increase in the stability coefficient, and the wear resistance of the material increases by a factor of 1.8 as compared to the as-cast alloy at comparable friction coefficients.     

Plastic deformation of FeNi invar alloys

We report on the deformation behaviour of FeNi single crystals oriented for single slip in the temperature region between 77 and 610 K. Below the Curie temperature the critical shear stress of the Invar alloys increases much more rapidly than that of any f.c.c. substitutional alloy investigated till now. Simultaneously the activation volume decreases down to 10–20 b³. Below the Curie temperature the stress-strain curves of the Invar crystals differ from those of other f.c.c. alloys. All results taken together indicate a dependence of the dislocation mobility on the magnetic properties of FeNi Invar. It is shown that the experiments cannot be understood with a simple magnetic friction stress arising from the interaction between the hydrostatic stress field of the edge dislocations and the stress dependence of the magnetization [3]. However, they can be described with an empirical friction law which had been introduced originally [18,19] for the case of strongly localized thermal activation, e.g. kink motion.     

Influence of preliminary deformation on the hardening effect upon aging of Al–Cu–Li alloys

The influence of preliminary deformation upon rolling of wedge specimens on the mechanical properties and the structural phase state of Al–Cu–Li alloys are studied by X-ray diffraction and hardness measurements. Strong dependence of the hardening effect upon aging on the reduction upon rolling has been revealed. Deformation weakly influences the hardness and significantly increases the hardening upon aging. Herewith, the hardening effect is nearly absent at the minimum deformation ratio of 1% and increases with its increase. It is demonstrated that the content of T₁ phase increases from 2 to 4% in the range of a preliminary deformation ratio of 6–10% and the content of δ' phase is ~17% at a deformation ratio in the range 1?6% and increases to 18–19% at a deformation ratio of 6–10%. The δ' phase in an alloy contains <20% nanocrystalline particles with 6–20 nm in size, and the remaining part consists of amorphous particles (as detected by X-ray diffraction) <5 nm in size, which precipitate coherently from the matrix and have the same orientation as the nanocrystalline particles and the solid solution.     

Synthesis and properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy strips prepared via hot densification rolling of powder preforms

Abstract

Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy strips were successfully prepared by a powder metallurgy route consisting of preparing powder preforms from premixed Cu, Al and Ni powders by cold compaction, stepwise sintering in the range 873–1273 K, followed by unsheathed multipass hot rolling at 1273 K in protective atmosphere. The densification behaviour of the sintered powder preforms during hot rolling has been discussed. Homogenisation of the hot rolled strips was carried out at 1173 K for 4 h. It has been shown that the finished Cu–Al–Ni alloy strip consisted of self-accommodated plates ofβ' and γ' martensites together with a small amount of nanocrystalline Cu₉Al₄ phase. The finished hot rolled Cu–Al–Ni strips had fracture strength of 476 MPa, coupled with 2·5% elongation. The shape memory tests showed almost 100% recovery after 10 thermomechanical cycles in the hot rolled strips at 1 and 2% applied prestrain.