Shifting subsidy from bricks and mortar to people: Experiences in Britain and West Germany

Since the early 1970s there has been a very similar shift in the balance of public spending on housing in Britain and Germany from general supply subsidies to demand subsidies (income related housing allowances and tax expenditures). This paper compares and contrasts the structures of those subsidy systems, the problems associated with them and current directions of change. Although there are close parallels in the shift of policy in both countries towards ‘targeting’ of explicit subsidies and in favour of greater profit‐making private provision, the environments in which this has occurred are very different. In particular, the lack of a functioning market for private rental housing in Britain—itself in part a function of tax and subsidy arrangements—severely limits the freedom of manoeuvre of British policy makers compared with their German counterparts.     

Modes of housing provision in developing countries

In the face of an estimated one billion people living in inadequate housing conditions in developing countries the need for scaling up housing supply has become an urgent focus of policy debate. To this end the expansion of the role of the private markets has formed the central thesis of the ‘enabling strategy’ for developing the housing sector as a whole rather than relying on project based approaches such as sites and services and settlement upgrading programmes. Policy recommendations emanating from such a standpoint concentrate on adjustments to supply and demand through deregulation and institutional development of the land and housing markets in developing countries in order to overcome largely external constraints to a more efficient market mechanism. This conception of the enabling strategy, however, has been subject to much debate and criticism for its over-concentration on the private markets and exclusion of alternative/complementary modes of housing provision from serious policy consideration. By utilising the structure and agency approach as its basic methodological tool of analysis this paper provides a comprehensive review of the scope and potential of different modes of housing provision in different contexts in developing countries. Thereby providing a firm comparative basis for examining the potential for expanded private market activity.The paper concludes that the severe underdevelopment of institutional capacities and human and material resources coupled with intricate and complex social, political, cultural and economic interactions between various agents and structures of provision create major obstacles to the efficiency of private land markets in developing countries. Therefore, while private markets can and should be supported they can not form the focus of the enabling strategy in most developing countries. Instead, the paper argues for a comprehensive approach to enabling strategies which combines adjustments to overall supply and demand conditions with the identification and inclusion of different modes and agents of housing provision in a holistic integrated policy.     

The different faces of private rented housing

The relation between public policy and the private rented sector is usually unclear. The private rented sector often suffers from public policy, although private landlords mostly enjoy fiscal advantages as well. In many European countries, private renting housing has been losing ground. Nevertheless, private rented housing fulfils a number of useful functions in the housing market: as a tenure for urban starters; for the elderly; and for a mobile, well-to-do segment of the population engaged in flexible labour markets. The main lines of seven country profiles are sketched here: (West) Germany, England, the Netherlands, Sweden, France, Canada and the United States. In his comparative contribution at the end of this special issue, Maclennan points out that the private rented sector has indeed declined in many European countries. But he also shows that in countries like the USA, Germany and Sweden the sector has had a broadly constant share since about 1980. In the future, private rented housing will remain an attractive sector, at least for those who are unable to afford owner-occupied housing and those unable to gain access to social housing. Hugo Priemus holds the chair in housing at Delft University of Technology and he is managing director of OTB Research Institute for Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies. Duncan Maclennan is McTaggart professor at the Centre for Housing Research and Urban Studies, University of Glasgow, Great Britain.     

Private rented housing in France

This paper reviews the evolution of the French private rented housing sector. It traces post-war policy developments, putting the specific tenure in a wide housing market context. The paper reviews France’s intricate system of personal and property—oriented housing subsidies, and assesses their demand and supply side repercussions. Discussion of the general post-war decline in private rented housing as a means of housing consumption is situated in the evolution of the national housing system, and the paper alludes to some key regional and local differentiations. The paper discusses the market contexts for attempts to revitalise the sector, concluding that broad fiscal measures are likely to have greater impact than rent decontrol. Madhu Satsangi is Lecturer in Housing Studies at the School of Planning and Housing, Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot-Watt University. Madhu has researched housing markets, voluntary and private-sector housing finance and housing management issues.     

Developments in the provision of housing finance in the UK

Recommended reading for providers and designers of housing. The results of the housing finance changes in the UK included a wider range of institutions involved, significant developments in the source and delivery of that finance, as well as important changes in government policy opening up social housing to the private finance market, targeting subsidy more directly at particular groups of individuals and introduction of specific supply subsidies to new private rented sector. The considerable unease with certain outcomes is dealt with.     

Meeting commercial and social goals: institutional investment in the housing association sector*

Analyses of the impacts of the use of private finance by housing associations (HAs) across Europe regularly align with the hybridity in the social housing sector, linking private finance to a range of negative consequences related to the loss of social purposes by HAs. This article examines some of the implications of institutional investment for HAs in Britain to meet their economic and social goals. Using a combination of interviews with HAs and institutional investors and a round table discussion, the study shows how such investment has facilitated HAs as hybrid organisations which adopt a pragmatically ‘fit-for-purpose’ approach that combines social benefit with profitability. For institutional investors, investing in social housing is a profit-oriented business as well as a corporate social activity that creates public relations benefits. Importantly, the study shows how government regulations can affect the form of institutional investment (bond finance rather than equity investment) in social housing and help HAs balance the opportunities and risks in combining business and social orientations.     

Social housing—past,present and future

Over the past decade in Western Europe there has been a growth of unmet low‐income housing needs. There are now as many as 3–5 million homeless people in the EC countries and many more who are paying more than they can afford for poor quality accommodation (Quilliot, 1992, p. 12). In the 1970s it seemed as if the acute post‐war shortages of low‐income housing had finally been overcome and mass programmes of social rented housing had played a key role in bringing this about. In addition, rising prosperity had opened up private market housing opportunities for broad sections of the population. However, the profound economic, social and political changes since the mid‐1970s have destroyed this optimistic scenario. Now we face, on the one hand, the re‐emergence of a large scale problem of housing availability and affordability and, on the other hand, the reluctance or inability of most governments and societies to respond to this problem. In particular, no government now seems likely to support large scale programmes of social rented housing construction to help meet the rising tide of low‐income housing needs. Indeed, large parts of the existing stock of social rented housing are beset with social, economic and physical problems. Also, in some countries, Great Britain and Germany for example, the size of this sector is rapidly diminishing as privatisation takes place. The purpose of this policy review is first to place the current circumstances of social rented housing in a longer‐term historical perspective, and second to compare the current situation of social rented housing in several Western European countries. Finally, the review will reflect on the prospects for social rented housing.     

Rental housing policy in England: post crisis adjustment or long term trend?

The UK Coalition government, formed in 2010, has set in place major housing policy reforms. Its objective is in part to address the country’s structural deficit, but also to rationalise the housing finance and welfare systems to ensure that assistance is more directly targeted and better value for money for government. Many commentators see these reforms as new and draconian while others regard them as just one more set of incremental changes in line with trends over the last four decades. This paper addresses this question by examining both long term trends in housing finance and policy and structural changes as they have affected the rental sector, particularly those shifting the balance between supply and demand side subsidies. The evidence suggests that the majority of changes over the longer term have been bi-partisan and have reflected economic tensions as much as political ideology. The biggest difference in current policy is not in the continuing shift towards demand side subsidies but more in the extent that lower income households will be expected to make larger contributions to their own housing costs. Whether policies on either the supply or the demand side will be fully implemented remains to be seen.     

On land supply and the price of residential housing

This paper develops an econometric model to examine the impact of land supply on residential housing prices. Specifically, this study examines the role of population, permanent income, real mortgage interest rates, construction cost, speculative demand, land supply and government land policy in the determination of private housing prices in Hong Kong. Empirical results provide strong evidence that an increase in land supply will bring forth a decrease in housing prices. The results also reveal that housing prices are dominated by the fundamental demographic and economic factors. The relatively small response coefficients suggest that speculative demand and land supply have a significant but modest impact on housing prices.     

The supply of private rented housing in Canada

Canadian housing policy objectives are generally pursued through a market framework. There is little provision of non-market housing. Thus, while Canada has a substantial private rented sector, it has only a small social rented housing sector. About a third of all dwellings belong to private landlords for market renting and only six percent are owned by public and private landlords for non-profit renting. The supply of dwellings newly constructed specifically for private market rental has fallen over the last 20 years. This fall has been compensated for in part by the supply of existing dwellings that have been transferred from other tenures. There has also been a fall in the proportion of private market rented dwellings owned by corporate landlords and an increase in the proportion owned by small-scale individual landlords, including individuals buying existing dwellings in other tenures to convert to private renting. These recent supply-side changes have been in response to three factors. First, changes to the federal tax system and direct supply incentives have reduced the attractiveness of investing in private renting for corporations but increased it for individuals. Second, the demand for private renting has fallen amongst middle- and high-income households because of demographic and tax changes. This has reduced the numbers of private renting households able to pay the rents needed to make new construction profitable. Third, other public policies have also had an impact on supply, including rent controls imposed by provincial governments and land use planning restrictions and building standards imposed by local authorities. An important feature of the Canadian private rental market is its geographical diversity, with supply-side trends varying in different provinces and urban areas in accordance with variations in demand and local policies. Tony Crook is Professor of Town & Regional Planning and Head of Department at the University of Sheffield. His main current research interest is housing policy, especially the investment decisions of private landlords and housing associations and the relationships between housing policy and land use planning. His research work has been funded by DoE, ESRC and the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. It has been widely published in books and in academic and professional journals. He is currently Chair of the Conference of Heads of Planning Schools. He is also active in the worlds of policy and practice. He is a member of the RTPI Housing and Renewal Panel, trustee of two housing associations, and an independent director of one of the new Local Housing Companies.     

Affordability, poverty and housing need: triangulating measures and standards

Over the last 25?years, ??affordability?? has become a more important issue in housing policy, although it is still not fully enshrined in agreed standards, partly due to different views about how it should be measured and at what thresholds. This paper argues that subjective evidence of payment problems and material hardship can be used to validate ratio measures and points to the best thresholds to use. Using household panel survey evidence it is shown that traditional affordability ratios are still probably the best objective measure, with residual income ratios in a supporting role; and that relatively generous thresholds are better. Composites with subjective payment problems are well validated by independent evidence on material hardship, and are associated with higher incidence of moves and other housing needs. These problems are much more prevalent in private renting, with less variation between regions than household types. Multivariate models shows strong effects from income and prices interacted with interest rates, especially for owners, with significant labour market and demographic effects, and substantial effects for renters from the supply of social lettings.     

The provision of private finance for social housing: An outline of recent developments in funding existing housing associations in England

With successive Housing Acts in 1985 and 1988 the British government declared its intention to create an environment for the integration of social housing and private finance. This paper draws on empirical research to consider the success to date this policy initiative from the perspective of financial institutions. This research concentrated on attitudes to the availability and suitability of financial instruments for social housing funding for existing housing associations in England. After an introduction clarifying the framework in which funds are raised, the first substantive section provides an overview of the characteristics of the potential lenders to social housing in England and of the regulatory environment affecting their lending policies. Section 3 outlines the main uses to which funds are put and the types of financial instrument currently available to housing associations. The paper next examines the scope for increasing the supply of these funds through wholesale markets, particularly via The Housing Finance Corporation. One attempt to expand the supply of finance to existing associations through ‘credit enhanced’ funds is then described. The paper concludes by evaluating progress so far and by questioning the degree to which social housing will have to change if private finance is increasingly to replace public sector funds.     

Landlords and housing in depression

Concentrating on the Great Depression in North American cities, but also drawing comparisons with the lesser depression of the 1890s, and with a different experience of depression in 1930s Great Britain, this paper argues that more attention should be paid to the role of, and problems faced by, private landlords, who still provided the majority of housing in most cities. Following a review of the crisis of housing construction and finance in early 1930s North America, the situations of different kinds of landlord (working class, philanthropic, speculative) are discussed. The overall effect of depression, in reducing levels of home ownership and changing the character of landlordism from investment to speculation, is contrasted with the outcome in Great Britain, where depression was associated with the growth of home ownership.     

Impacts of contrasting housing policies on low-income households in Australia and the Netherlands

This paper aims to contribute to the debate in comparative housing studies about the significance of national housing policies by considering what can be learnt from analysing the consequences of different policy paths. In particular, the paper looks at the evidence of the long-run impacts of different housing strategies adopted to assist lower-income households in Australia and the Netherlands, using housing affordability as a measure of their impact. Australia is an example of a country that has promoted mass home ownership across the income distribution supplemented by a very small public housing system. In contrast, the Netherlands has relied more on a large and diversified social housing sector. The comparative analysis shows that there are many similarities in the patterns of affordability among low-income households in the two countries despite the use of different policy means. In the past, both countries had good success providing secure and affordable housing for poorer households. Now, lower-income households are experiencing greater affordability problems that are linked to societal changes and the retrenchment of government housing assistance in both cases. However, the study also finds that affordability problems among lower-income households are worse in Australia because of the greater reliance on private housing in that country.     

Fiscal policy,taxation incentives and inner‐city housing development

This paper considers the risk and uncertainty attached to inner‐city environments and analyses the use of taxation incentives as a policy instrument in generating demand‐led residential development in such localities. Initially an international perspective is outlined; however, particular attention is focused on Dublin, Ireland, where taxation breaks specifically orientated at both owner and occupiers and investors have been a prime influence in stimulating private sector residential development on a major scale within the central core of the city. The case is presented for the imaginative use of tax incentives in achieving effective urban regeneration. Whilst it is recognised that housing policy and mechanisms cannot simply be replicated from one situation to another, there is need for policy‐makers, especially in Britain, to consider more innovative approaches to inner city housing renewal by integrating macro‐economic, fiscal and housing policy objectives.     

British housing since 1979: Has the system changed?

This article assesses the way the British housing system has responded to large changes in policy and economic variables since 1979 in order to determine whether behavioural relationships have remained stable during this period or whether underlying relationships have varied. Changes in demographic factors in relation to total supply, in the allocation of housing between different groups and different tenures, in rents, prices and the availability of finance are all reviewed to determine how the system has adjusted. The main conclusion is that on the demand side trends have continued, if anything more strongly, while on the supply side there has been a downward shift in new output levels which can be explained only partly by direct changes in government policy. This however can be explained in terms of adjustment and can best be described as adjusting td changes in constraints resulting in a tightening up of the system rather than to modifications in behavioural relationships.     

析法国社会住宅建设中的公共干预方式

以法国大力推行社会住宅建设为背景，分析了当前国际性的住宅危机和供需状况，以及社会住宅的融资方式和公共资助体系。随着社会住宅政策的不断演变，法国的公共干预模式也进行了调整和完善，逐渐由公共部门主导向公私合作方向发展，进而在协议区开发模式下鼓动私人部门的力量进行大规模的建设。     

High dwelling vacancy rate and high prices of housing in Malta a mediterranean phenomenon

Current data from South European countries, especially Malta, indicates the existence of some contradictory forces in the housing market that defy the law of supply and demand and require explanation. In a ‘normal’ housing market, it can be expected that a high dwelling vacancy rate would help keep down the price of housing. In Malta, however, both the vacancy rate and housing prices have been rising in tandem for decades, unabated, even under the recent international market crunch. The government housing policy, which has always stimulated homeownership, is still encouraging new house building. Despite the high number (over 50,000) of vacant dwellings, the authorities issue more than 6,000 building permits annually to the private sector. In this paper we outline and explain the major factors contributing to this unlikely combination. Doing so, we use a welfare-state perspective. We identify and explain the underlying factors that are collectively responsible for such a paradox: the state; the family; the powerful Catholic Church; the underdeveloped Maltese financial market; and the paternalistic culture prevalent in Malta.     

Land supply and housing development: A comparative analysis of Britain and the Netherlands 1970–95

This article examines the relationship between land supply and housing development in Britain and The Netherlands, two countries conventionally perceived to be very different in this respect. The article forwards a dual approach to analysis. The first is focused on fundamental differences. These are elaborated in terms of demographic factors, political process and physical land conditions. The second approach expands on a framework devised by Needham & Lie (1994), which is adapted here for the analysis of land policy over time. The article examines the complex nature of land policy in both countries. It thereby highlights the difficulties in providing a robust analytical framework capable of bridging comparison over time and of concluding on the extent of policy convergence.     

Transnational migration,remittances and the financialization of housing in Colombia

Recently, various Latin American governments have sought to render migrants as development agents by channelling remittances to specific sectors such as housing and finance. The available literature has yet to articulate how these developments are reconfiguring the political economy of housing in the region. The paper draws on empirical data collected at both ends of the Colombia–UK migration network. It argues that the Colombian Government’s efforts to incorporate migrants into the polity through a renovated housing policy aim to institutionalize migrant households’ transnational practices and their links with global circuits of capital and finance. They are underpinned by the repositioning of housing away from consumption into an investment item and driver of economic growth and the financial sector as the main medium for households’ access to public and private housing, and other basic services. These developments have taken place in the context of a broader process of financialization of the global development agenda in the last three decades.