The interaction between brief and very brief psychotherapy: Allowing for flexible time limits on individual counseling services.

Discusses the use of very brief psychotherapy (1–5 sessions) and more extended time-limited psychotherapy of up to a semester's duration in college mental health programs. Very brief psychotherapy may help minimize the waiting list problem, while at the same time meeting clients' needs as they are presented. To be effective, however, 2 criteria must be satisfied: (1) The psychologist must believe in the value of very brief intervention and be diagnostically sophisticated enough to know when to institute it, and (2) the administration and clinical service staff must be supportive of a flexible model of time limits that allows for a range of sessions versus a specific limit of sessions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of personal and universal failure on the subsequent performance of persons with Type A and Type B behavior patterns.

Compared the task performance of Type A (coronary prone) and Type B (noncoronary prone) persons following failure on a task in which no one succeeded (universal failure) vs failure on a task in which others had succeeded (personal failure). Postfailure performance was measured in terms of speed of completion of anagrams. 26 Type A and 28 Type B undergraduates were selected based on their scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey. Initial analyses indicated that the failure manipulation was effective in influencing the Ss' perceived cause of their failures and that Ss were more anxious and depressed following personal than universal failure. Type A's performed better following personal than universal failure, whereas type of failure had no effect on the performance of Type B's. Results suggest that, contrary to what is usually thought, Type A's do not struggle for success indiscriminately and that there are situational determinants of the level of effort that Type A's will expend. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expression of interpersonal aggression by angered and nonangered persons with the Type A and Type B behavior patterns.

37 male undergraduates, who were classified on the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey as showing the Type A (coronary prone) or Type B (noncoronary prone) behavior pattern, were first either angered or not angered in a problem-solving task by a confederate who posed as another S. In a subsequent bogus learning experiment, Ss had the opportunity to punish or reward the confederate. The effectiveness of the anger manipulation was attested to by the fact that angered Ss had reliably higher pulse rates and blood pressure. In the learning experiment, Type As who had not been angered gave the confederate reliably higher levels of punishment than did Type Bs, but there was no difference in the levels of punishment given by Type A and Type B Ss who had been angered. There was also no difference between Type A and Type B Ss in the levels of reward they gave the confederate. Results provide behavioral evidence for aggression in persons with the Type A behavior pattern. The fact that the difference in aggression was limited to nonangered Ss is interpreted in terms of differences in attributions of responsibility. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of interview length and applicant quality on interview decision time.

Investigated the impact of applicant quality (high vs low) and expectation of interview length (30 vs 15 min) on interview decision time using 60 experienced employment counselors from private employment agencies as Ss (30 males average age 35.5 yrs; modal education level 4 yrs of college). Ss were shown a videotape of a staged interview and were asked to make a hire/not hire decision as soon as they felt they had sufficient information. As predicted, Ss required significantly more time to decide when viewing the high-quality applicant. They also required more time to decide when they expected the interview to last 30 min. An examination of the correlations between ratings and decision time for the high-quality-applicant condition showed most of them to be negative. However, correlations in the low-quality-applicant condition were mostly positive. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative ions and behavior: Impact on mood, memory, and aggression among Type A and Type B persons.

71 male undergraduates completed the Jenkins Activity Survey—Form T and were typed as showing Type A (coronary prone), Type B (noncoronary prone), or intermediate behavior. Ss were given an opportunity to aggress against a stranger who previously had either provoked or not provoked them. The opportunity to aggress (as well as all other aspects of the study) took place in the presence of a high, moderate, or low (ambient) concentration of negative air ions. Exposure to moderate or high levels of negative ions significantly enhanced aggression by Type A's but not by other Ss. In addition, negative ions produced positive shifts in Ss' reported moods on the Profile of Mood States in the absence of provocation, but negative shifts in moods in the presence of provocation. Findings suggest that moderate or high concentrations of negative ions serve as a source of heightened activation, thus enhancing individuals' dominant reactions or tendencies in a given situation. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of failure to meet client preference in a counseling interview analogue.

The hypothesis that failure to meet client preference for high- or low-directive counselor style would adversely affect interpersonal process was tested with 48 undergraduates in a counseling intervention analog oriented around students' actual problems. Students with strongly stated preferences for high- or low-directive counselors were randomly assigned to a counselor whose style was congruent or incongruent with their preference. The Therapist Behavior Scale was used to assess counselor directiveness. Dependent variables included 3 speech and 2 satisfaction measures. The data do not support the hypothesis. There was no evidence that failure to meet client preference adversely affected interview process. Clients of high-directive counselors expressed significantly greater satisfaction with the client–counselor relationship, spent only about 50% as much time per utterance, responded significantly more quickly, and exhibited less silence time while they held the floor than did clients of low-directive counselors. Results suggest that recent interest in ascertaining and meeting client preference may not be relevant to the quality of the interpersonal process. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frequency and type of confrontation over time within the first therapy interview.

Rated 1st psychotherapy interviews of 56 professional and graduate student therapists on empathy, positive regard, genuineness, and concreteness. On the basis of the notion of at least minimally facilitative conditions being necessary for client improvement, 13 therapists were designated as high- and 43 as low-facilitative therapists. Major findings were: (a) high- and low-facilitative graduate students differed significantly over time in their use of confrontations which focused on the ongoing therapist-client relationship; (b) high- and low-facilitative professionals differed significantly over time in their use of the same type of confrontation as well as confrontations which focused on client resources. In addition, they tended to differ significantly on confrontations which pressed for client action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual level and structure on initial interview behavior.

Assessed the impact of the conceptual level matching model within a counseling situation. A 2–3 randomized block design was used to compare the effects of matching counselee conceptual level (CL) to counselor-offered degree of structure in a 40-min initial interview analogue. Two treatment levels of counselor structure (low and high) were crossed with 2 blocks of undergraduates (24 low-CLs and 24 high-CLs) and 2 interviewers. It was predicted that matched persons (low CL, high structure; high CL, low structure) would respond better than mismatched persons (low CL, low structure; high CL, high structure). The high-CL matching predictions recieved a significant degree of support in expressions of self-awareness and satisfaction. The low-CL matching predictions received a significant degree of support in the areas of satisfaction and ratings of counselor helpfulness. Use of different behavioral outcomes and a flexible counseling style are stressed. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schematic representation of the Type A and B behavior patterns.

Two studies with 68 undergraduates who were identified as Type A (coronary prone) or Type B (noncoronary prone), based on their scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey—Form T, investigated the existence of Type A and Type B self-schemata, using 2 tasks designed to measure the influence of these hypothetical structures on speed of processing and memory interference. During an initial task, Type A's and B's made self-relevant decisions (like me, not like me) in response to trait adjectives previously scaled as Type A, Type B, or neutral in content. Reactions times (RTs) for the decisions were measured. Results indicate that both Type A's and B's made faster decisions for schema-compatible responses than for schema-incompatible responses. On a 2nd task, Type A's and B's were tested for recognition memory after they attempted to memorize half of the aforementioned trait list. Memory errors were examined and showed that Type A's and B's made more errors that were compatible with their respective self-schemata. Overall findings indicate that a Type A and Type B distinction forms a reliable organizing framework for the self-definitions of Type A's and B's. The existence of stable cognitive structures that parallel the behavioral differences between Type A's and B's has implications for both theory and application, such as the importance of examining how Type A and Type B self-schemata influence judgments of others in the achievement and performance domains. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client cooperative interview behavior and outcome in paradoxical and behavioral brief treatment approaches.

Assessed client cooperation vs resistance in 16 university clients (mean age 28.6 yrs) on the basis of behavior during intake interviews in terms of a coordinating style construct (which assesses how well the client coordinates contributions to the interaction with the interviewer's contributions and the client's own contributions at other points in time). Ss then completed a brief course of counseling—9 in a paradoxical condition and 7 in a behavioral condition. Results indicate that there was a stronger negative relation between noncoordinating style and improvement in the behavioral condition as compared with the paradoxical condition. Findings provide preliminary empirical support for the widely held position that a paradoxical approach is especially well-suited for resistant clients, whereas behavioral approaches are appropriate for cooperative clients. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, instructions, and verbal conditioning on self-referenced affect in a counseling interview.

Examined the relationships between locus of control, specificity of instruction, and verbal conditionability on self-referenced affect in a counseling analog interview. 118 female undergraduates were administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. On the basis of scores tabulated for H. L. Mirels's factor of personal internality, 40 Ss were classified as internals or externals and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: general instructions or specific instructions. All Ss then participated in an interview with a counselor. The interview was divided into 3 sections: baseline, conditioning, and extinction. During the conditioning period, the counselor verbalized self-referenced affect and reflection of feeling on a 2-min interval schedule. Results indicate that specific instructions combined with verbal conditioning procedures produced the greatest increase in self-referenced affect for both internal and external Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to the directive and instigational functions of instructions on internal/external Ss. Implications for future research are outlined. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

EMG biofeedback training of Type A and Type B behavior pattern subjects.

Assessed the relative efficacy of EMG biofeedback training to reduce tension levels in Ss characterized either by the presence of the coronary-prone behavior pattern (Type A) or by its absence (Type B). 55 college students, classified as Type A or B on the basis of Jenkins Activity Survey (Form T) scores, were randomly assigned to either a biofeedback or a control group. Ss met for 6 training sessions, then returned for a 7th session to perform without biofeedback a series of easy (4-digit recall) and difficult (7-digit recall) tasks. Biofeedback Ss attained a greater degree of relaxation during training than did control Ss, regardless of A/B status. Also, biofeedback Ss maintained greater relaxation during task performance than did control Ss. Across groups, Type A's performed significantly better than Type B's on difficult tasks, and although Type A biofeedback Ss had EMG levels as high as Type B controls for the actual duration of performance tasks, they maintained significantly lower EMG levels than either group prior to, between, and after performance tasks. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning and transfer of affective self-references in a role-played counseling interview.

Tested the differential effects of 5 forms of therapy-like intervention in the conditioning and transfer of affective self-references (ASRs) in a 40-min role-played initial counseling interview with 72 female undergraduates. Conditioning of ASRs and transfer to a TAT story-telling task were found, although hypothesized relationships between discriminative cue potency of the interventions and performance were only partially supported. An explanation involving the presumed interaction of S awareness of her own self-disclosures with intervention type, degree of threat, and conditioning performance is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task-related arousal of Type A and Type B persons: Level of challenge and response specificity.

To determine whether different levels of challenge had differential effects on the arousal levels of Type A (coronary prone) and Type B (noncoronary prone) persons, 30 Type A and 30 Type B male undergraduates worked on an intelligence test task (digits backwards recall) that was easy, moderately difficult, or extremely difficult. Arousal was measured in terms of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate, pulse volume, skin resistance, and subjective arousal. Results indicate that, while working on the extremely difficult task, the Type A's evidenced reliably higher systolic blood pressure than did Type B's and that there were not reliable differences between Ss in systolic blood pressure at other levels of challenge or on other measures of arousal. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of behavioral (reinforcement) and advice-giving counseling on information-seeking behavior.

Conducted a 2 * 3 factorial nested design study in which 4 counselors provided reinforcement or persuasive advice-giving to increase information seeking by 20 high and 20 low self-esteem undergraduates. A nonactive control group of 10 Ss was included. The 2 experimental groups were scheduled for 2 counseling interviews 1 wk. apart. A 3rd structured interview was scheduled 2 wk. later so all Ss could report their information-seeking behavior outside the interviews. Results demonstrate that behavioral reinforcement counseling is superior to advice-giving on 4 criterion measures: (a) counselees exhibited significantly higher frequency of verbal information-seeking behavior in the interview; (b) they engaged more in eventual information-seeking activities outside the interview (frequency and variety); (c) verbal and "eventual" information-seeking behaviors were significantly and positively correlated (generalization effect); and (d) student-counselor talk ratio was significantly higher. (44 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor response behavior on clients' impressions during vocational counseling.

We examined the effects of four counselor response types—self-disclosure, self-involving, empathy, and open question—on subjects' impressions of the counselor during vocational counseling. A total of 201 undergraduate students viewed videotapes of an initial vocational counseling interview, in which the counselor used either self-disclosure, self-involving, empathy, or open-question statements. Using a 2 (counselor sex)?×?2 (client sex)?×?4 (response type) design, a three-way interaction was found in regard to counselor social influence. However, for the most part, a general lack of significance was found across the dependent measures. These results are interpreted relative to vocational counseling and then compared to the literature on personal–social counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of race on interview ratings in a situational panel interview.

This study investigated the effects of interviewer race, candidate race, and racial composition of interview panels on interview ratings. Data were collected on 153 police officers applying for promotion. Results confirmed a same-race rating effect (i.e., candidates racially similar to interviewers received higher ratings) for Black and White interviewers on racially balanced panels. A majority-race rating effect (i.e., candidates racially similar to the majority race of panel interviewers received higher ratings) existed for Black and White interviewers on primarily White panels. Rating patterns of Black and White interviewers on primarily Black panels also suggested a majority-race rating effect. Racial composition of selection interview panels in combination with interviewer and candidate race were proposed as variables affecting candidates' ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A randomized trial of a brief HIV risk reduction counseling intervention for women.

There is an urgent need for the development and implementation of effective and feasible behavioral HIV and STD interventions. The purpose of the present randomized controlled trial was to evaluate the effectiveness of a single-session, skill-based sexual risk reduction intervention for women. Participants were assessed at baseline and at 1 month and 3 months following the intervention on measures of AIDS knowledge, behavioral intentions, self-efficacy, and sexual risk behavior. Compared with women in an AIDS-education-only condition, women receiving the skill-based intervention reported significantly higher rates of condom use at 3-month follow-up. Results suggest that brief sexual risk reduction programs are feasible and effective within a community setting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)