Experimental and analytical study of SIMCON tension members

The strength and ductility of slurry infiltrated mat concrete (SIMCON) tension members were investigated both experimentally and analytically to construct a mechanical model for simulating tensile force–displacement relationships. In addition to standard strength testing, special tests were conducted on tension specimens with preset cracks to determine the interaction between steel fibers and the cement matrix near an opening crack. These tests were conducted on two sets of preset-crack specimens: (i) with symmetrically inclined fibers and (ii) with aligned fibers having variable debonded lengths on each side of the crack. Using measured bridging forces of inclined fibers, an efficiency factor of plane random fibers, compared to aligned fibers, was determined to be approximately 0.58. It was found that the ductility of SIMCON mainly stems from plastic deformation of steel fibers rather than fiber pull-out. SIMCON tensile response was characterized by elastic, nonlinear hardening and softening regimes. The hardening response was notch insensitive without multiple crack formation. In the elastic regime, only minute stiffness reduction was observed. The nonlinear hardening regime was characterized by internal damage growth without visible crack formation and ended with the appearance of a co-linear set of partial cracks. The softening regime was described by a localized failure of fibers with variable failure strains at the co-linear cracks. Based upon the experimental observation that a co-linear set of partial cracks form at the ultimate composite stress, upper and lower bounds of the SIMCON stress–strain relation in the hardening regimes were obtained.     

Matrix fatigue cracking in fiber composites

A model is developed for fatigue growth of matrix cracks in metals reinforced with aligned continuous elastic fibers. The mechanics of elastic cracks bridged by frictionally constrained fibers is used to develop the model, which provides estimates of the tip value of the stress intensity factor amplitude, ΔK_TIP. It is found that when the applied load amplitude is held fixed during fatigue crack growth, ΔK_TIP, and thus the rate of growth approach an asymptotic value independent of crack length. The residual strength after fatigue crack growth is also discussed. In some cases, the residual strength is unaffected by prior fatigue growth. But, in another regime, the matrix crack length allows fibers to begin breaking before the matrix crack grows. The strength is then inversely proportional to the square root of fatigue crack length.     

Effect of fiber modulus of elasticity on the long term properties of micro-fiber reinforced cementitious composites

Fibers for reinforcing cementitious composites are typically short and randomly dispersed in the matrix. Consequently, most of the fibers are inclined to the cracks that develop in the cement matrix and suffer from bending stress as these cracks open. For brittle fibers, such as carbon fibers, the bending stress may lead to flexural fiber rupture before the fiber attains its full capacity in direct tension. As a result, the efficiency of these fibers may be reduced. This phenomenon is not expected to occur in ductile fibers, which can yield locally rather than rupture. Predictions of a theoretical model show that the bending stress increases as the matrix becomes denser and suffer (an event which occurs as the matrix ages or due to the addition of silica-fume) and decreases for fibers of lower modulus of elasticity. Therefore, a reduction in strength with time in composites with dense matrices is expected for very brittle fibers of high modulus, moderate or no reduction for low modulus brittle fibers, and no reduction in strength is expected for ductile fibers. The long term properties of cementitious composites reinforced with various microfibers was studied to validate the model; PAN and Pitch type carbon fibers represented brittle fibers of high and low modulus, respectively; polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile fibers represented ductile fibers. The results showed good agreement with the theoretical model.     

树枝状非连续界面对纤维增强复合材料强度的影响

对于含有化合物产生的强界面复合材料,界面结合强度的提高往往使材料的拉伸强度降低.本文研究了这种非连续的复合材料界面对界面裂纹、纤维的强度的影响,分析了非连续界面影响材料强度的机理.     

Multiple effects of nano-SiO2 and hybrid fibers on properties of high toughness fiber reinforced cementitious composites with high-volume fly ash

This article explores multiple effects of nano-SiO₂ and hybrid fibers on the flowability, microstructure and flexural properties of high toughness fiber reinforced cementitious composites. Only a little negative influences of nano-SiO₂ and hybrid fibers on the flowability are observed. SEM and MIP analysis reveal that nano-SiO₂ results in much smaller pore size in the composites. However, the porosity increases gradually with nano-SiO₂ addition. Three-point bending test results show that nano-SiO₂ increases the flexural strength of the composites with nearly equivalent deformability, but higher strength of the matrix leads to wider cracks. Due to larger volume fraction and higher modulus, hybrid fibers effectively mitigate this adverse influence on crack width and further enhance the flexural strength. The composites reinforced with 1.4% steel fiber and 2.5% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber exhibit the best flexural properties in the test. Finally, a simplified model is proposed to illustrate the reinforced mechanism of steel-PVA fibers.     

Statistical theory of polymer longevity

A probabilistic model is proposed for the long-term strength of polymer materials containing initial cracks of different length. The model is used to determine the probability density of the longevity values and the logarithm of longevity; they are used to explain the experimentally observed spread in the values of the longevity and the form of the empirical probability density for the logarithm of the longevity. Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 9, pp. 56–64, September, 1993.     

Microstructural dependence of fracture energy and toughness of ceramics and ceramic composites versus that of their tensile strengths at 22 °C

The microstructural dependence of fracture energy and toughness of ceramics and ceramic particulate, platelet, and whisker composites is compared with the corresponding dependence of their tensile (flexure) strengths at 22 °C. These comparisons show that fracture energy and toughness often do not have the same porosity, or grainor particle-size dependence as strength. This is attributed to the scale of the cracks for measuring fracture energy or toughness often being too large in comparison to the cracks controlling strength. The large cracks reflect crack-microstructure interaction phenomena such as crack-wake bridging and R-curve effects that are not, or are much less, involved in the control of propagation of most strength-controlling cracks. Thus fracture mechanics must account for the scale of the cracks used in measuring fracture mechanics parameters relative to the scale of the cracks controlling the strength behaviour that is to be explained or predicted.     

Micromechanisms of damage in unidirectional fiber reinforced composites: 3D computational analysis

Numerical micromechanical investigations of the mechanical behavior and damage evolution of glass fiber reinforced composites are presented. A program code for the automatic generation of 3D micromechanical unit cell models of composites with damageable elements is developed, and used in the numerical experiments. The effect of the statistical variability of fiber strengths, viscosity of the polymer matrix as well as the interaction between the damage processes in matrix, fibers and interface are investigated numerically. It is demonstrated that fibers with constant strength ensure higher strength of a composite at the pre-critical load, while the fibers with randomly distributed strengths lead to the higher strength of the composite at post-critical loads. In the case of randomly distributed fiber strengths, the damage growth in fibers seems to be almost independent from the crack length in matrix, while the influence of matrix cracks on the beginning of fiber cracking is clearly seen for the case of the constant fiber strength. Competition between the matrix cracking and interface debonding was observed in the simulations: in the areas with intensive interface cracking, both fiber fracture and the matrix cracking are delayed. Reversely, in the area, where a long matrix crack is formed, the fiber cracking does not lead to the interface damage.     

Mesh‐independent matrix cracking and delamination modeling in laminated composites

The initiation and evolution of transverse matrix cracks and delaminations are predicted within a mesh‐independent cracking (MIC) framework. MIC is a regularized extended finite element method (x‐FEM) that allows the insertion of cracks in directions that are independent of the mesh orientation. The Heaviside step function that is typically used to introduce a displacement discontinuity across a crack surface is replaced by a continuous function approximated by using the original displacement shape functions. Such regularization allows the preservation of the Gaussian integration schema regardless of the enrichment required to model cracking in an arbitrary direction. The interaction between plies is anchored on the integration point distribution, which remains constant through the entire simulation. Initiation and propagation of delaminations between plies as well as intra‐ply MIC opening is implemented by using a mixed‐mode cohesive formulation in a fully three‐dimensional model that includes residual thermal stresses. The validity of the proposed methodology was tested against a variety of problems ranging from simple evolution of delamination from existing transverse cracks to strength predictions of complex laminates withouttextita priori knowledge of damage location or initiation. Good agreement with conventional numerical solutions and/or experimental data was observed in all the problems considered. Published 2011. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

Mismatch limit loads and approximate <Emphasis Type="Italic">J</Emphasis> estimates for tensile plates with constant-depth surface cracks in the center of welds

The present work provides mismatch limit loads and approximate J estimates for tensile plates with constant-depth, part-through surface cracks in the center of the weld metal. Based on systematic three-dimensional FE limit analyses, effects of strength mismatch related variables on limit loads are firstly quantified by the strength mismatch ratio and one geometry-related parameter. Mismatch limit loads for part-through surface cracks are then correlated to those for two-dimensional, through-wall crack problems. Based on the proposed limit load solutions, the applicability of the reference stress based J estimates is also investigated. When the reference stress is defined by the mismatch limit load, predicted J values agree overall well with FE results.     

Influence of MSD crack pattern on the residual strength of flat stiffened sheets

A parameter study of the residual strength for a multiple site damaged (MSD) stiffened sheet is presented. The analysis is based on an elastic-plastic fracture analysis using the yield-strip model for interaction between a lead crack and the smaller MSD cracks. Two crack growth criteria, one with a pronounced crack growth resistance and one with no crack growth resistance and five different MSD crack patterns, are analysed for different sizes of the lead crack and the smaller MSD cracks. The analysis indicates that the residual strength reduction depends on all these parameters and that MSD may totally erode the crack arrest capability of a tear strap. Another important outcome is that for certain combinations also very small MSD cracks may induce a significant residual strength reduction.     

改性聚丙烯纤维对发泡水泥性能的影响

采用丙烯酸化学接枝法对聚丙烯纤维进行表面改性, 研究了改性聚丙烯纤维对发泡水泥塑性收缩开裂、 力学性能及泡孔结构的影响。结果表明, 改性聚丙烯纤维可改善发泡水泥的泡孔结构, 并降低其塑性收缩开裂、 细化其塑性收缩裂缝, 同时可提高其抗折、 抗压强度及弯曲韧性。纤维与水泥的质量比为0.7%时, 试样的泡孔结构明显改善, 塑性收缩开裂值下降了85.4%, 且缝宽小于1 mm的塑性收缩裂缝比例高达73.1%, 同时试样抗折及抗压强度分别增加48.8%和30.3%, 弯曲韧性显著增加。利用傅里叶变换红外光谱仪、 SEM、 光学显微镜对改性前后聚丙烯纤维表面基团及发泡水泥试样的断面微观形貌、 泡孔结构进行了分析, 探讨了改性聚丙烯纤维的作用机制。     

裂纹面动摩擦作用对脆性材料动力破坏的影响EI北大核心CSCD

基于岩石类材料的I型裂纹模型,提出了一种考虑裂纹密度、裂纹相互作用以及裂纹面动摩擦作用的脆性材料动力模型。以正方形阵列分布的裂纹为例,定量分析了不同裂纹密度及不同摩擦行为对试件的裂纹扩展过程、试件受力和破坏的影响。数值计算结果表明:随着裂纹密度增大,裂纹间的相互作用增强,试件破坏时的加载应力降低,惯性效应引起试件轴向附加应力增大。裂纹面的滑动会降低裂纹面的动摩擦系数,促进裂纹发展,并降低试件的强度。相对于常数摩擦系数,考虑速度及状态依赖型摩擦模型对裂纹面的滑动过程更为合理。动强度因子对比结果显示出试件明显的应变率效应和尺寸效应。     

THE FAILURE OF LIGAMENTS DUE TO MULTIPLE-SITE DAMAGE USING INTERACTIONS OF DUGDALE-TYPE CRACKS

A self-similar, narrow-strip Dugdale model is invoked to determine interactive crack tip plastic zones. Symmetric collinear multiple-site damage (MSD) cracks are considered for the coalescence of plastic zones between adjacent cracks. The Swift's ligament failure criterion is employed to predict the residual strength with or without considering the interaction between Dugdale-type plastic zones. Better agreement is achieved between the calculated results and experimental data if the interaction between the plastic zones is implemented in a computing scheme.     

A modified Kachanov method for analysis of solids with multiple cracks

Kachanov proposed an approximate method for the analysis of multiple cracks by assuming that traction in each crack can be represented as a sum of a uniform component and a non-uniform component, and the interaction among the cracks are only due to the uniform components. These assumptions simplify considerably the mathematics and allow ‘closed-form’ solutions to be obtained for some cases. However, it is noted that the assumptions may not be valid when the cracks are very close. Therefore, an improved method of elastic solids with closely spaced multiple cracks is proposed. Unlike the Kachanov method, traction in a crack is decomposed into a linearly varying component and a non-uniform component so that the sum of the two components to be equal to the traction along the crack length. It is further assumed that the interaction effect due to the non-uniform component can be neglected, and therefore, only the effect of the linearly varying component has to be considered. The accuracy of the present method is validated by comparing the results of two and three collinear open cracks obtained by the present method with those of the exact solutions and the original Kachanov method. Applications of the approach in solving non-collinear parallel crack and friction crack problems are also presented to demonstrate the versatility and accuracy of the method.     

Mechanical properties of thermally treated hemp fibers in inert atmosphere for potential composite reinforcement

Hemp (Cannabis Sativ L.) is an important lignocellulosic raw material for the manufacture of cost-effective environmentally friendly composite materials. From an earlier study it was found that when hemp bast fibers were heated above the glass transition temperature of lignin, there was a migration of lignin to the surface of the fiber. The preliminary observations showed that heat treatment in inert environment seemed to provide enough fiber opening without affecting the associated tissues of the fibers. Here, hemp fibers were given heat treatment in an enclosed vessel in air as well as inert environment and their mechanical properties were compared to the raw hemp fiber. It was found that there were openings of fibers upon heating, both along the length as well as along the diameter or the width directions. For the same weight of the fiber, the total count of fibers increased during heat treatment, with increment up to 32% for inert environment and 39% for air environment; the increment was mainly due to opening up of fibers into lesser diameters than the original fibers. The strength properties were strongly influenced by the diameter of the fibers, with the lesser fibers contributing to greater tensile strength and modulus. The overall tensile strength and modulus of fibers treated in inert environment were found to have increased, probably due to production of fibers of lesser diameters, presumably with less number of natural defects. The overall strength of fiber treated in air environment, however, decreased even though there was opening up of fibers in this case as well. This was due to oxidation of various constituents of fiber which contributes strength.     

Statistical issues in the fracture of brittle-matrix fibrous composites

This paper reviews recent work and presents new results on statistical aspects of the failure of composites consisting of brittle fibers aligned in a brittle matrix. The failure process involves quasi-periodic matrix cracking in planes perpendicular to the fiber, frictional sliding of the fibers in fiber break zones, and fiber bridging of cracks in a load-sharing framework that may vary from global to fairly local. First, we review the overall statistical features of the failure process, and identify certain issues in terms of critical geometric, statistical and mechanical parameters. This leads to two interesting cases, one where the spacing of matrix cracks is small relative to the length scale of load transfer in the fibers, and one where it is larger. Next we consider ‘characteristic’ bundles in the composite which capture essential features of the statistics of the failure process, and develop their distributions for strength in terms of certain characteristic stress and length scales. We then model the composite as a chain arrangement of such bundles both longitudinally and laterally, as the scale of load transfer among fibers in a bundle may be smaller than the full composite cross-section. This scale, though not precisely quantified, depends on such things as the stiffness of the matrix relative to the fibers, the volume fraction of the matrix and the spacing of periodic cracks. We then consider the strength distribution for the composite on the basis of the failure of the weakest characteristic bundle. We also consider issues related to fiber pull-out and the work of fracture as well as the possibility of severe strain localization especially within the bundle triggering overall failure. Substantial reductions in strength are predicted for smaller bundle sizes, but composite reliability is typically very high and the size effect very mild. Finally, we mention limited comparisons with Monte Carlo simulations and experimental results.     

Flexural strength of reinforced concrete T-beams with steel fibers

The ultimate strength of reinforced concrete T-beams reinforced with conventional steel bars and short discontinuous steel fibers are studied. It is found that the presence of steel fibers reduced effectively the deflection, width of cracks and also improved the ductility and flexural rigidity of the concrete beams. Hence, an appreciable increase to the ultimate compressive strain is observed as well as the increase in the ultimate compressive strength. These are reflected by an increase in the value of the compressive block parameters. In addition, an increase in tensile strength is achieved and a rectangular tensile stress distribution is proposed. It was found that a negligible difference in moment capacity between overreinforced and underreinforced concrete beams. Therefore, it may be economical to use more amount of tension reinforcement than that allowed by the codes. Theoretical equations are developed to calculate the ultimate strength of reinforced concrete T-beams taking into account the effect of amount of compression reinforcement and amount of steel fibers. Theoretical equations show good agreement when compared with experimental results.     

Cohesive and non-cohesive fracture by higher-order enrichment of XFEM

A comprehensive study is performed on the use of higher-order terms of the crack tip asymptotic fields as enriching functions for the eXtended FEM (XFEM) for both cohesive and traction-free cracks. For traction-free cracks, the Williams asymptotic field is used to obtain highly accurate stress intensity factors (SIFs), directly from the enriched degrees of freedom without any post-processing. The low accuracy of the results of the original research on this subject by Liu et al. [Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., 2004; 59:1103–1118] is remedied here by appropriate modifications of the enrichment scheme. The modifications are simple and can be easily included into an XFEM computer code. For cohesive cracks, the relevant asymptotic field is used, and two widely used criteria including the SIFs criterion and the stress criterion are examined for the crack growth simulation. Both linear and nonlinear cohesive laws are used. For the stress criterion, averaging is avoided due to the highly accurate crack tip approximation because of the higher-order enrichment. Then, a modified stress criterion is proposed, which is shown to be applicable to a wider class of problems. Several numerical examples, including straight and curved cracks, stationary and growing cracks, single and multiple cracks, and traction-free and cohesive cracks, are studied to investigate in detail the robustness and efficiency of the proposed enrichment scheme. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evolution of crystallization and its effects on properties during pyrolysis of Si–Al–C–(O) precursor fibers

The high-temperature resistant Si–Al–C–(O) fibers were prepared through polymer-derived method using continuous polyaluminocarbosilane (PACS) fibers. Evolutions of the crystallization during the pyrolysis of the Si–Al–C–(O) precursor fibers were investigated by a series analysis. The structure of the fibers transforms from organic state to inorganic state and the crystalline phases appear during the pyrolysis. The β-SiC crystallite size increases when the temperature is higher than 1,300 °C. At the same time, the α-SiC appears. At 1,600 and 1,800 °C, the grain size of β-SiC of the fibers is 15.4 and 22.1 nm, respectively. The growth of β-SiC and the appearing of α-SiC have a great influence on the properties of the fibers. The change of the tensile strength of the pyrolysis products is divided into three stages with the growth of the crystal. The tensile strength of the Si-Al-C fibers is higher than 1.9 GPa.