Quantifying the evolution of static elastic properties as crystalline rock approaches failure

The pervasive damage of rock by dilational microcracks strongly influences rock strength and macroscopic elastic properties. In this study, two types of experiment were performed to investigate and quantify the contribution of microcracking to the static elastic response of Westerly granite as it approaches failure. They are (1) increasing-amplitude cyclic loading experiments and (2) constant-amplitude cyclic loading experiments, some of which incorporated a ‘load-hold’ component to explore the elastic response of time-dependent effects such as stress corrosion. We report values for the tangent moduli in the region of the stress–strain curve where the values are the same for an unloading cycle as they are for the subsequent loading cycle. Hence, although there is hysteresis between these two curves, we assume perfect elasticity in this region. This approach allows the evolution of static elastic properties as rock approaches failure to be documented in great detail, in contrast to previous work that has generally been limited to the linear elastic region of the stress–strain curve. Increasing-amplitude stress cycling causes a gradual reduction in sample stiffness, equating to a decrease in Young's modulus (11%) and an increase in Poisson's ratio (43%) measured at a constant stress level. Elastic properties are also seen to have a strong stress-dependency during loading (46% increase in Young's modulus from 20 to 100 MPa). Experiments devised to promote time-dependent microcracking had a negligible contribution to the evolution of static elastic properties over the timeframe and dry conditions under which our experiments were conducted. Such results can be applied to our understanding of the mechanics, stress distribution and fault displacement models within and surrounding fault zones.     

Coupled evolutions of fracture toughness and elastic wave velocities at high crack density in thermally treated Westerly granite

A series of 20 chevron cracked notched Brazilian disc (CCNBD) samples of Westerly granite were failed in a standard Mode I tensile test at room temperature in order to evaluate the effect of thermal damage on fracture toughness. The heat treatment involved slowly heating four sets of four samples to 250, 450, 650 and 850 °C. The fifth set of samples was not thermally treated. Thermal cracking not only induced a substantial decrease of the mechanical strength, but also of the dynamic elastic properties of Westerly granite. In particular, normalized P-wave compressional velocities matched remarkably well the decreasing trend of normalized fracture toughness (K_IC). Above 450 °C, grain boundary opening and cracking, intragranular cracking and mineral grain dissection linked to the quartz α–β phase transition induced a significant increase in the total crack density. Fracture path interaction with various mineral–mineral contact types showed that fracture branching and total fracture length increased with the amount of temperature of heat treatment.Using non-interactive crack theories, dimensionless crack densities were obtained from wave velocity inversion, up to unusually high values of 10 at 850 °C. This geophysical analysis showed to be in close agreement with crack parameters determined optically, such as optical crack density determination, crack aspect ratio evolutions, and the measured sample porosity with temperature. Our results also show that only the non-interactive crack theory can predict K_IC relatively well at high crack density, by simply using dimensionless crack densities inverted from velocities. A decrease of 50% for crack densities larger than 1, 80% for crack densities larger than 5 is predicted, in close agreement with our observed experimental variation of K_IC. At the microscale, this can be interpreted by the fact that the main fracture is strongly interacting with the pre-existing microcrack fabric. These combined experimental and modeling results illustrate the importance of understanding the details of how the rock microstructure is changing in response to an external stimulus, in order to predict the simultaneous evolution of physical and mechanical properties of rock.     

盐岩力学特性应变率效应的试验研究

 以层状盐岩体矿床中的NaCl岩盐与无水芒硝盐岩为研究对象,在实验室内进行10－5～10－3 s－1范围内单轴压缩强度与变形特性的应变率效应研究。研究结果表明：在上述应变率范围内,NaCl岩盐与无水芒硝盐岩的单轴抗压强度与弹性模量基本不随加载应变速率而变化;同一应变速率条件下,无水芒硝盐岩强度略高于NaCl岩盐;两类盐岩的泊松比均随加载应变速率的增大而减小;随加载应变速率的增大,试件在峰值应力点处的应变减小,其变形模量与加载应变速率呈对数关系;试件破裂方式不随加载应变速率而变,NaCl岩盐试件破裂为柱状劈裂或楔型剪切,而无水芒硝盐岩则表现为单斜剪切。对扩容应力与极限强度之比统计结果表明,盐岩扩容应力与极限强度之比(平均值)为87.3%～91.0%,表明盐岩在扩容之前均具有很强的变形能力。由试验结果可知,在其他安全稳定条件满足的前提下,盐岩溶腔储气库运营中、腔壁应变率在10－5～10－3 s－1范围之内,可以保证储气库腔体的安全稳定运营。     

Effect of different salts on the corrosion properties of friction type A607 steel rock bolt in simulated concentrated water

Friction type steel rock bolts are one of the most commonly used for reinforcing tunnels (since the late 1970s) due to their ability to sustain large rock mass displacements. In this paper, corrosion behavior of an FRS rock bolt (ASTM A607 steel) was investigated under Yucca Mountain simulated concentrated water at different concentrations (1×, 10× and 100×) and temperatures by using electrochemical measurements. Effects of individual salts, chlorides, sulfates, bicarbonates and silicates were also evaluated using the same method. Overall, the corrosion rate was an order of magnitude higher in an aerated condition than in a deaerated condition. The results from the individual salts showed the highest corrosion for the bicarbonate salts (300 μm/yr) and lowest for the silicate (4 μm/yr). The bicarbonate solutions accelerate the anodic dissolution of steel at higher concentrations. In the case of silicate solutions, the rock bolt shows passivity even at a higher negative potential (−925 mV) compared to other salts (−750 mV) with a large passive region which forms a protective layer on the specimen surface.     

Experiments on mechanical properties of salt rocks under cyclic loading

The primary purpose of underground gas storages is to provide gas for seasonal consumptions or strategic reserve.The periodical operations of gas injection and extraction lead to cyclic loading on the walls and surrounding rocks of gas storages.To investigate the mechanical behaviors of different host rocks in bedded salt deposit,laboratory experiments were conducted on the samples of rock salt,thenardite,glauberite and gypsum.The mechanical properties of rock samples under monotonic and cyclic loadings were studied.Testing results show that,under monotonic loading,the uniaxial compressive stress(UCS) of glauberite is the largest(17.3 MPa),while that of rock salt is the smallest(14.0 MPa).The UCSs of thenardite and gypsum are 16.3 and 14.6 MPa,respectively.The maximum strain at the peak strength of rock salt(halite) is much greater than those of the other three rocks.The elastic moduli of halite,thenardite,glauberite and gypsum are 3.0,4.2,5.1 and 6.8 GPa,respectively.Under cyclic loading,the peak strengths of the rock specimens are deteriorated except for rock salt.The peak strengths of thenardite,glauberite and gypsum decrease by 33.7%,19.1% and 35.5%,respectively;and the strains of the three rocks at the peak strengths are almost the same.However,the strain of rock salt at the peak strength increases by 1.98%,twice more than that under monotonic loading.Under monotonic loading,deformation of the tested rock salt,thenardite and glauberite shows in an elastoplastic style.However,it changes to a ductile style under cyclic loading.Brittle deformation and failure are only observed for gypsum.The results should be helpful for engineering design and operation of gas storage in bedded salt deposit.     

Removal of emerging contaminants of concern by alternative adsorbents

The effective removal of emerging contaminants of concern (ECCs) such as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, pharmaceutically active compounds, personal care products, and flame retardants is a desirable water treatment goal. In this study, one activated carbon, one carbonaceous resin, and two high-silica zeolites were studied to evaluate their effectiveness for the removal of an ECC mixture from lake water. Adsorption isotherm experiments were performed with a mixture of 28 ECCs at environmentally relevant concentrations (200–900 ng/L). Among the tested adsorbents, activated carbon was the most effective, and activated carbon doses typically used for taste and odor control in drinking water (<10 mg/L) were sufficient to achieve a 2-log removal for most of the tested ECCs. The carbonaceous resin was less effective than the activated carbon because this adsorbent had a smaller volume of pores in the size range required for the adsorption of many ECCs (6–9 Å). For the removal of ECC mixture constituents, zeolites were less effective than the carbonaceous adsorbents. Because zeolites contain pores of uniform size and shape, a few of the tested ECCs with matching pore size/shape requirements were well removed, but the adsorptive removal of others was negligible, even at zeolite doses of 100 mg/L. The results of this study demonstrate that effective adsorbents for the removal of a broad spectrum of ECCs from water should exhibit heterogeneity in pore size and shape and a large pore volume in the 6–9 Å size range.     

层状盐岩储气库物理力学特性与极限运行压力

分析研究层状盐岩中盐岩与夹层的孔隙率与渗透率,指出在未遭受变形破坏条件下,盐岩及其夹层本质致密,不会对储气库安全造成影响.但是,对盐岩与夹层的单轴和三轴力学特性、长期蠕变性进行实验研究与理论分析认为,盐岩与夹层间存在的力学特性差异及变形不协调,会造成2种岩性交界处的剪切破坏,影响储库安全性.在此基础上,提出层状盐岩储气库极限运行压力确定原则,包括顶板稳定、蠕变控制、腔体致密及裸井致密等,并结合实例进行分析研究.所得结果对我国层状盐岩中天然气储库的建造与运行具有一定指导意义及应用价值.     

Long-term changes of mercury levels in ringed seal (Phoca hispida) from Amundsen Gulf, and beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) from the Beaufort Sea, western Canadian Arctic

Mercury (Hg) concentrations were determined in the canine teeth of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) harvested during the 13th–14th, late 19th and early 21st Centuries in Amundsen Gulf, Northwest Territories, Canada. Most historical and pre-industrial teeth contained undetectable Hg levels (i.e. < 1.0 ng/g DW), whereas samples from 2001–03 contained up to 12 ng/g DW in an age-dependent pattern. Assuming a median [Hg] value in 13th–14th Century teeth of half the detection limit (i.e. 0.5 ng/g DW), geometric means of Hg in modern teeth were 9–17 times those of seals in the 14th Century, equivalent to an anthropogenic input of 89–94% of total Hg in modern seals. These results corroborate a previous study of beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) in the nearby Beaufort Sea. While the seals' trophic position (inferred from δ¹⁵N values) did not change over time, modern δ¹³C values were lower by about 2‰ than in the 14th and 19th Centuries. This could be due to increased dissolution of anthropogenically derived CO₂ in the ocean from the atmosphere, but could also indicate more offshore pelagic feeding by modern seals, which might be a factor in their Hg exposure. New tooth [Hg] data are also presented for the Beaufort Sea beluga, using recently-discovered museum samples collected in 1960/61, which showed that most of the anthropogenic contribution to beluga Hg had already taken effect by 1960 (reaching  75% of total Hg). Taken together, the long-term seal and beluga data indicate that whereas Hg levels in the marine ecosystems of the western Canadian Arctic were probably unchanged from pre-industrial times up to the late 19th Century, there was a significant, many-fold increase in the early to mid-20th Century, but little or no change after about the early 1960s.     

What intensity of fire can a fire fighter survive in a reflective shelter

A model predicting the thermal conditions to be endured by a person using a reflective shelter in a forest fire is described. The thermal parameters used in the model were quantified by laboratory experiments, by use of existing relationships, and by comparison with field data obtained for an empty instrumented tent. A refinement to allow for the energy absorbed by the occupants was included and the model was run using the temperatures recorded in highintensity experimental fires. Human survival criteria of 100°C for the maximum air temperature and 2°C for the rise in body temperature were applied to the model's predictions. A maximum survivable intensity of 5.6 MW per lineal meter of fire edge was predicted.Nomenclature C _g thermal capacitance of ground; kJ(°C)^–1 (µF for simulator) - C _i thermal capacitance of inside air; kJ(°C)^–1 (µF) - C _t thermal capacitance of tent; kJ(°C)^–1 (µF) - h hour - I _r Incident radiation, kW m^–2 (ma for simulator) - kW kilowatt - kPa kilopascal - kg kilogram - k kilo-ohm - m meter - ma milliamp - MBT Mean body temperature; °C - mm millimeter - MW megawatt - Q _c Rate of energy absorption by convection; watts - Q _w Rate of energy absorption from wall radiation; watts - R _et Thermal resistance external air to tent; °C kW^–1 (k for simulator) - R _gg Thermal resistance between layers of ground; °C kW^–1 (k) - R _io Thermal resistance internal air to occupant; °C kW^–1 (k) - R _tg Thermal resistance radiation from tent to ground; °C kW^–1 (k) - R _to Thermal resistance radiation from tent to occupant; °C kW^–1 (k) - R _ti Thermal resistance for tent to inside air; °C kW^–1 (k) - R _ig Thermal resistance for inside air to ground; °C kW^–1 (k) - s second - T _a Air temperature; °C - T _e External air temperature; °C - tha^–1 weight of combustible fuel; tonnes per hectare - T _i Internal air temperature; °C - T _w Wall temperature; °C - v velocity; m s^–1 - V volts - W watts - Stephan-Boltzmann constant; 5.672 × 10^–8 W m^–2 K^–4 - µF microfarad - °C temperature in degrees centigrade - K temperature in Kelvins     

层状盐岩体非线性蠕变本构模型

 针对由不同岩层交替而组成的层状盐岩体,建立泥岩夹层和盐岩复合体代表单元,根据应变协调原理,从细观力学分析角度通过考虑泥岩夹层弹性性质、盐岩弹性及蠕变力学特性以及两相体积含量建立层状盐岩体宏观各向异性非线性蠕变增量型本构模型,分析层状盐岩在蠕变过程中因保持细观应变协调而产生的应力重分布问题,给出新本构模型ABAQUS有限元二次开发增量迭代算法实现方法,对一层状盐岩体简单试样算例进行初步计算分析验证,分析计算与试验结果吻合较好,表明该本构模型能反映细观应变协调时层状盐岩体宏观蠕变力学特性,该模型将为层状盐岩体内硐室长期稳定性分析提供理论计算基础。     

Transverse drilling-induced tensile fractures in the West Tuna area, Gippsland Basin, Australia: implications for the in situ stress regime

Drilling-induced tensile fractures (DITFs) have been interpreted on image logs from vertical wells in the Gippsland Basin, offshore southeastern Australia. Interpreted axial (vertical) DITFs have previously been well described worldwide. We also interpret transverse (horizontal) DITFs, which are horizontal fractures that are electrically conductive, non-planar, bimodal and constrained to the tensile region of the wellbore.Elasticity theory predicts formation of both transverse and axial drilling-induced tensile fractures (DITFs) in vertical wells depending on the magnitude of the principal in situ stresses, pore-pressure and mudweight. Drilling-induced tensile fractures initiate in very specific stress environments. Axial DITFs can closely constrain a lower bound to the maximum horizontal stress (S_H max) magnitude where the minimum horizontal (S_h min) stress is known. If transverse DITFs are observed, they can constrain a lower bound to maximum and minimum horizontal stress magnitudes. The observation of transverse DITFs on image logs can constrain the stress field to one on the border of strike-slip and reverse faulting () without requiring knowledge of the S_h min or S_H max magnitude. The observation of transverse DITFs in the West Tuna area combined with wireline log data, leak-off tests and pore pressure data are used to constrain the in situ stress tensor. The interpreted in situ stress tensor lies on the border of a strike-slip and reverse faulting regime (S_H max40.5 MPa/km>S_h min≈S_v21 MPa/km). Interpreted data from leak-off tests in the West Tuna area confirm that S_h minS_v.     

Effect of intermediate principal stress on strength of anisotropic rock mass

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion needs to be modified for highly anisotropic rock material and jointed rock masses. Taking σ₂ into account, a new strength criterion is suggested because both σ₂ and σ₃ would contribute to the normal stress on the existing plane of weakness. This criterion explains the enhancement of strength (σ₂ – σ3) in the underground openings because σ₂ along the tunnel axis is not relaxed significantly. Another cause of strength enhancement is less reduction in the mass modulus in tunnels due to constrained dilatancy. Empirical correlations obtained from data from block shear tests and uniaxial jacking tests have been suggested to estimate new strength parameters. A correlation for the tensile strength of the rock mass is presented. Finally, Hoek and Brown theory is extended to account for σ₂. A common strength criterion for both supported underground openings and rock slopes is suggested.     

Shear fracture (Mode II) of brittle rock

Mode II fracture initiation and propagation plays an important role under certain loading conditions in rock fracture mechanics. Under pure tensile, pure shear, tension- and compression-shear loading, the maximum Mode I stress intensity factor, K_Imax, is always larger than the maximum Mode II stress intensity factor, K_IImax. For brittle materials, Mode I fracture toughness, K_IC, is usually smaller than Mode II fracture toughness, K_IIC. Therefore, K_Imax reaches K_IC before K_IImax reaches K_IIC, which inevitably leads to Mode I fracture. Due to inexistence of Mode II fracture under pure shear, tension- and compression-shear loading, classical mixed mode fracture criteria can only predict Mode I fracture but not Mode II fracture. A new mixed mode fracture criterion has been established for predicting Mode I or Mode II fracture of brittle materials. It is based on the examination of Mode I and Mode II stress intensity factors on the arbitrary plane θ,K_I(θ) and K_II(θ), varying with θ(−180°θ+180°), no matter what kind of loading condition is applied. Mode I fracture occurs when (K_IImax/K_Imax)<1 or 1<(K_IImax/K_Imax)<(K_IIC/K_IC) and K_Imax=K_IC at θ_IC. Mode II fracture occurs when (K_IImax/K_Imax)>(K_IIC/K_IC) and K_IImax=K_IIC at θ_IIC. The validity of the new criterion is demonstrated by experimental results of shear-box testing.Shear-box test of cubic specimen is a potential method for determining Mode II fracture toughness K_IIC of rock since it can create a favorable condition for Mode II fracture, i.e. K_IImax is always 2–3 times larger than K_Imax and reaches K_IIC before K_Imax reaches K_IC. The size effect on K_IIC for single- and double-notched specimens has been studied for different specimen thickness B, dimensionless notch length a/W (or 2a/W) and notch inclination angle α. The test results show that K_IIC decreases as B increases and becomes a constant when B is equal to or larger than W for both the single- and double-notched specimens. When a/W (or 2a/W) increases, K_IIC decreases and approaches a limit. The α has a minor effect on K_IIC when α is within 65–75°. Specimen dimensions for obtaining a reliable and reproducible value of K_IIC under shear-box testing are presented. Numerical results demonstrate that under the shear-box loading condition, tensile stress around the notch tip can be effectively restrained by the compressive loading. At peak load, the maximum normal stress is smaller than the tensile strength of rock, while the maximum shear stress is larger than the shear strength in the presence of compressive stress, which results in shear failure.     

两种不同沉积类型界面盐岩力学特性试验研究

 金坛含盐系为一套浅湖相–泻湖相–蒸发岩相成盐构造,由机械沉积与化学沉积作用共同形成;潜江含盐系湖盆环境为常年性较深水分层盐湖,主要在深水、缺氧、静水环境下以机械沉积形成,因此2种沉积类型界面并不相同。针对2种不同沉积类型界面盐岩,分别进行单轴、三轴压缩及剪切试验研究,深入分析试验过程中盐岩力学特征变化情况及其力学含义,同时对试样破坏特性进行对比分析。研究发现：2种界面盐岩试样都表现出较好的延性特征,未发生崩溃式破坏;裂纹集中分布于界面处,纯盐岩段均少见裂纹生成,与金坛盐岩试样相比,潜江盐岩界面对试样变形的限制作用更突出;2种界面盐岩试样剪切峰值应力与纯盐岩相当,说明界面剪切破坏由盐岩的力学特性决定。研究成果对进一步深入研究我国不同地域层状盐岩地下储气库选址与建设具有一定参考意义。     

An equivalent plasticity theory for jointed rock masses

A non-representative volume element (NRVE) approach to equivalent rock mass properties shows that the form of the elastic–plastic constitutive equations is the same for homogeneous material elements and multiple-material elements, subsequently homogenized. Thus the average stress and strain increments in an arbitrary jointed rock mass volume are related by {dσ}=([C*_ep]){dε} where σ is effective stress. The equivalent elastic-plastic properties matrix [C*_ep] is the sum of an equivalent elastic moduli matrix [C^*] and a plastic ‘correction’ matrix [C*_p, as usual. However, there are no equivalent plastic potentials Y^* or yield functions, failure criteria F^* or strengths. The equivalent elastic-plastic properties are constructed from the elastic moduli and strengths of the rock mass joints, the intact rock between and strain influence functions that relate local to overall average strains. Numerical examples that simulate laboratory-like tests on jointed rock cubes illustrate the approach.     

A QSAR-like analysis of the adsorption of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products on modified activated carbons

Rapid small-scale column tests (RSSCTs) examined the removal of 29 endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceutical/personal care products (PPCPs). The RSSCTs employed three lignite variants: HYDRODARCO 4000 (HD4000), steam-modified HD4000, and methane/steam-modified HD4000. RSSCTs used native Lake Mead, NV water spiked with 100–200 ppt each of 29 EDCs/PPCPs. For the steam and methane/steam variants, breakthrough occurred at 14,000–92,000 bed volumes (BV); and this was 3–4 times more bed volumes than for HD4000. Most EDC/PPCP bed life data were describable by a normalized quantitative structure–activity relationship (i.e. QSAR-like model) of the form:

where TPV is the pore volume, ρ_mc is the apparent density, CV is the molecular volume, C_o is the concentration, ⁸χ_p depicts the molecule's compactness, and FOSA is the molecule's hydrophobic surface area.     

Stress–strain–electrical resistance effects and associated state equations for uniaxial rock compression

This paper reports stress–strain–electric resistance experiments for diabase, limestone and marble containing NaCl solution during the whole process of uniaxial compression. We obtained the complete testing data for the stress–strain curve and the associated electrical resistance–strain curve. The change caused by internal cracking of the rock causes the corresponding variation of rock electrical resistance. There is a minimum value for all the electric resistance–strain curves, corresponding to the cracking stress σ_c or the initial cohesion c_i. Based on the experimental results and stochastic property analyses of the rock fracture variation, we put forward a group of state equations for rock in sections to express the characteristics of rock during the whole process of uniaxial compression. The three variables, stress, strain and electrical resistance, together with data-fitted parameters, α₁,α₂ and β, are contained in the equations. The equations are used to express the inelastic response which intensifies with the propagation of cracking.     

Non-dilatant deformation and failure mechanism in two Long Valley Caldera rocks under true triaxial compression

We conducted laboratory rock strength experiments in two ultra-fine-grained brittle rocks, hornfels and metapelite, which together are the major constituent of the Long Valley Caldera (California, USA) basement in the 2025–2996 m depth range. Both rocks are banded, and have very low porosity. Uniaxial compression tests at different orientations with respect to banding planes reveal that while the hornfels compressive strength is nearly isotropic, the metapelite possesses distinct anisotropy. Conventional triaxial tests in these rocks reveal that their respective strengths in a specific orientation increase approximately linearly with confining pressure. True triaxial compression experiments in specimens oriented at a consistent angle to banding, in which the magnitudes of the least (σ₃) and the intermediate (σ₂) principal stresses are different but kept constant during testing while the maximum principal stress is increased until failure, exhibit a behavior unlike that previously observed in other rocks under similar testing conditions. For a given magnitude of σ₃, compressive strength σ₁ does not vary significantly in both Long Valley rock types, regardless of the applied σ₂, suggesting little or no intermediate principal stress effect. Strains measured in all three principal directions during loading were used to obtain plots of σ₁ versus volumetric strain. These are consistently linear almost to the point of rock failure, suggesting no dilatancy. The phenomenon was corroborated by SEM inspection of failed specimens that showed no microcrack development prior to the emergence of one through-going shear failure plane steeply dipping in the σ₃ direction. The strong dependency of compressive strength on the intermediate principal stress in other crystalline rocks was found to be related to microcrack initiation upon dilatancy onset, which rises with increased σ₂ and retards the failure process. We infer that strength independence of σ₂ in the Long Valley rocks derives directly from their non-dilatant deformation.     

Application of Weibull's theory to estimating in situ maximum stress σH by hydrofracturing

Hydrofracturing is a widely used and established method for rock stress measurement and is especially valuable at great depths. In conventional hydrofracturing (Haimson, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 15 (1978) 167), dealing with an axi-parallel fracture, the horizontal minimum stress σ_h is obtained as the shut-in pressure and the maximum stress σ_H is calculated from the breakdown pressure or reopening pressure. It has been pointed out, however, that σ_H is not as reliable as σ_h. This paper therefore presents a new approach for estimating σ_H. In this approach the probabilistic aspects of tensile failure are considered as new sources of information, because the probability density of fracture direction may provide valuable information concerning the stress difference σ_H−σ_h. As the basic theory to describe the tensile failure of rock, we adopted the Weibull’s weakest link theory. The applicability of the theory is first verified via tensile tests on rock specimens of different shape and size, then the probabilistic approach is applied to hydrofracturing to give the probability function of breakdown and the probability density function for the fracture direction. The applicability of the proposed method is presented through numerical calculations and an example in which σ_H−σ_h is estimated from the probabilistic variability of the fracture direction.     

New technique for construction of compacted beds in collapsible soils

Conclusions 1. The construction of compacted soil beds makes it possible to eliminate the collapsibility properties of soils in the bases of buildings and structures to a depth of 8–12 m. The dry density of the soil in the compacted soil mass was 1.73–1.80 tons/m³.2. In the upper part of the soil bed, to a depth of 1.0-1-3 m a decompressed soil layer with _d=1.35–1.55 tons/m³ is formed, which must be additionally compacted with heavy rammers.3. The moduli of deformation of the soils at the tamped soil bed in the pressure range 0–4 MPa are 18–21 MPa.4. To prevent bulging out at the soil to the surface, tamping of the material at the face and filling of the trench hollow must be carried out to a "refusal" equal to 10 cm per blow.5. Use of tamped soil beds is recommended for buildings with on equivalent pressure equal to or exceeding 0.1 MPa in collapsible soils with 1.6_d1.4 tons/m³ and in fill soils with _d1.6 tons/m³. The corresponding natural water content of the soil should be in the range w_p+0.04ww_p–0.04.VNIIOSP Institute. "Orgatroi" Trust of the Ministry of Construction of the Moldavian SSR. Translated from Osnovaniya, Fundamenty i Mekhanika Gruntov, No. 3, pp. 7–9, May–June, 1988.