Empathy research: Some methodological considerations.

Calls for a systematic inquiry into the construct of empathy and suggests that improved definitional and methodological consideration in research will lead to more persuasive findings about the alleged relations between empathy and client outcomes. A category system is proposed for analyzing methodological deficiencies. The system is applied to 4 different measures of empathy and 3 studies having different findings but purportedly similar designs. Renewed attention to the construct of empathy is advocated. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the use of "theory" and the usefulness of theory.

The three preceding articles (see PA, Vol 76:10520, 10513, and 10523) question Greenwald, Pratkanis, Leippe, and Baumgardner's (see record 1986-20964-001) advocacy of result-centered research methods. This response notes points of agreement with the three comments and indicates how some disagreements can be traced to differences in use of the term "theory" and consequent differences in conceiving the relation of theory to data. A more substantial disagreement concerns Greenwald et al.'s point that result-centered methods may often advance theory more effectively than do theory-centered methods. That point is developed further here by (a) summarizing arguments for concluding that theory testing is not guaranteed to lead to increased precision or scope of theories, and (b) explaining how result-centered methods can be efficient in selecting among competing theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal measures of vocalization: Some methodological considerations.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 48(2) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10973-001). The copyright notice was inadvertently omitted. The notice that should have appeared on the first page of this article is provided in the erratum.] Five studies—with 164 university students, 56 military personnel, and 4 elderly persons—examined methodological issues associated with temporal measures of vocalization. The simple measures of phonation, silence, and interrupt and measures of silence relative to phonation were found to be sensitive to task and emotional factors and were stable across experience. A procedure for analyzing interviews is presented, and potential applications of the temporal measures are discussed. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Scale: Some methodological considerations.

40 3rd and 5th graders were administered the 1st 3 dilemmas of Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Scale. One group received the scale 2 wks after first administration, while another group received a multiple-choice variant of the scale. Data analyses revealed low test–retest reliability for scores attained on the 3 dilemmas together as well as individually. Scores on items within each dilemma were found to be low and generally nonsignificant. Ss who received the multiple choice variant of the scale scored at significantly higher moral levels than did those who received the typical verbal production version of the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychobiology of affective disorders. Some methodological considerations

Amine hypothesis is neither an adequate nor a sufficient postulate in understanding the neuropsychobiology of affective disorders. Interactions and balance between various mechanisms and factors may be important. Better techniques and methodology need to be used and a more comprehensive approach seems to be necessary in formulating meaningful research strategies. The present paper reexamines someaspects of the available data and suggests a few approaches in the sutdy and elucidation of neruophychobiology of affective disorders.     

"Temporal measures of vocalization: Some methodological considerations": Correction to Swingle.

Reports an error in "Temporal measures of vocalization: Some methodological considerations" by Paul G. Swingle (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1984[Dec], Vol 47[6], 1263-1280). The copyright notice was inadvertently omitted. The notice that should have appeared on the first page of this article is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-11098-001.) Five studies--with 164 university students, 56 military personnel, and 4 elderly persons--examined methodological issues associated with temporal measures of vocalization. The simple measures of phonation, silence, and interrupt and measures of silence relative to phonation were found to be sensitive to task and emotional factors and were stable across experience. A procedure for analyzing interviews is presented, and potential applications of the temporal measures are discussed. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal conditioning of two response classes: Some methodological considerations.

The capacity to condition verbalizations of an interviewee was seen to be related to S's awareness of what was going on but independent of such variables as the age, sex, vocabulary level, (Taylor) anxiety level, and word rate of Ss. Specific content could be successfully conditioned, particularly those words which related to people; such words as plural nouns were unaffected by the reinforcement procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender-related traits and gender ideology: Evidence for a multifactorial theory": Correction.

Reports errors in the original article by J. T. Spence (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1993[Apr], Vol 64[4], 624–635). Several columns in Table 1 (page 630) were incorrectly labeled. The corrected table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1993-25426-001). 95 male and 221 female college students were given 2 measures of gender-related personality traits, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, and 3 measures of sex role attitudes. Correlations between the personality and the attitude measures were traced to responses to the pair of negatively correlated BSRI items, masculine and feminine, thus confirming a multifactorial approach to gender, as opposed to a unifactorial gender schema theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk mechanisms in development: Some conceptual and methodological considerations.

This commentary focuses on several issues concerning research on risk mechanisms that are raised in this special issue. First, we focus on what marks this special issue as distinctive in the ways in which risk research is conducted. Second, several general issues in research are highlighted, including sample characteristics, measurement strategies, specificity of risk factors and risk mechanisms, categorical vs. dimensional approaches to samples and measures, and definitions of development and transitions. Third, the challenges for integrating alternative models of risk are discussed, with special references to research on genetic and environmental influences on developmental psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effecting organizational change: A "mineralogical" theory of organizational modifiability.

This article presents a "mineralogical" theory of organizational modifiability. The basic idea is that organizations differ in the degree to which they are modifiable. Interventions within organizations may succeed or fail as much as a junction of the modifiability of the organization as a junction of the intervention itself. The article considers the questions addressed, by the theory, the theory itself, concrete examples of the theory, implications for interventions, the measurement of aspects of the theory, and conclusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Integrating neural networks into decision-making and motivational theory: Rethinking VIE theory": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Integrating neural networks into decision-making and motivational theory: Rethinking VIE theory" by Robert G. Lord, Paul J. Hanges and Ellen G. Godfrey (Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 2003[Feb], Vol 44[1], 21-38). The paper by Lord, Henges and Godfrey, referred to in some of the commentaries (this issue), was accepted as part of the Special Section on psychology without boundaries. However, it was inadvertently published in a previous issue. The full reference is: Lord, R. G., Hanges, P. J., & Godfrey, E. G. (2003). Integrating neural networks into decision-making and motivational theory: Rethinking VIE theory. Canadian Psychology, 44 (1), 21-38. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2003-01537-005.) Uses a reformulation of V. H. Vroom's (1964) VIE (Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy) theory to illustrate the potential value of neuropsychologically based models of cognitive processes. Vroom's theory posits that people's decisions are determined by their affective reactions to certain outcomes (valences), beliefs about the relationship between actions and outcomes (expectancies), and perceptions of the association between primary and secondary outcomes (instrumentalities). One of the major criticisms of this type of theory is that the computations it requires are unrealistically time-consuming and often exceed working memory capacity. In this paper, the authors maintain that if an individual has extensive experience with a problem situation, he or she can process decisions about that situation using neural networks that operate implicitly so that cognitive resources are not exhausted by simple computations; instead, the computations are performed implicitly by neural networks. By thinking about VIE from a neural network standpoint, at least one of its problems is eliminated, and several new insights into decision-making are provided. The authors use simulation methodology to show that such a model is both viable and can reflect the effects of current goals on choice processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological considerations for the behavioral genetic analysis of work attitudes.

In a recent article, R. D. Arvey et al (see record 1989-25020-001) argued that about 30% of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by workers' genetic make-ups. To demonstrate this, they examined a group of monozygotic twins who had been reared apart. Although this method has been used widely in behavioral genetic research, it contains many hidden threats to validity, which could render suspect numerical estimates of either environmental or genetic effects. We examine some of the threats associated with this type of twin research, emphasizing the problems involved in quantifying the heritability of job satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spurious estimation of validity coefficients in composite samples: Some methodological considerations.

In much test validation research, composite validation samples are formed by aggregating subsamples containing predictor and criterion data from different geographic locations, different positions, or different jobs. Typically, the subsamples are treated as random partitions in spite of the fact that mean differences on the predictor, criterion, or both variables may exist. This article demonstrates that predictor or criterion mean differences may lead to over- or underestimation of the population validity coefficient, depending on the profile of mean differences on both variables. Referencing the aggregation bias literature, this article presents equations that explain the effect of mean differences across partitions of the validation sample in terms of a modification of the partial correlation. Solutions to the problem are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the three-component model of organizational commitment.

This article offers a conceptual critique of the three-component model (TCM) of organizational commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990) and proposes a reconceptualization based on standard attitude theory. The authors use the attitude-behavior model by Eagly and Chaiken (1993) to demonstrate that the TCM combines fundamentally different attitudinal phenomena. They argue that general organizational commitment can best be understood as an attitude regarding the organization, while normative and continuance commitment are attitudes regarding specific forms of behavior (i.e., staying or leaving). The conceptual analysis shows that the TCM fails to qualify as general model of organizational commitment but instead represents a specific model for predicting turnover. The authors suggest that the use of the TCM be restricted to this purpose and that Eagly and Chaiken's model be adopted as a generic commitment model template from which a range of models for predicting specific organizational behaviors can be extracted. Finally, they discuss the definition and measurement of the organizational commitment attitude. Covering the affective, cognitive, and behavioral facets of this attitude helps to enhance construct validity and to differentiate the construct from other constructs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A methodological critique of "Interventions for boys with conduct problems."

Reanalyzed G. R. Patterson's (see record 1974-32972-001) data on 27 conduct problem boys which showed moderate success of his behavioral intervention procedures in reducing noxious behaviors and the persistence of this improvement in a follow-up study. It is noted that, although posttreatment means were based on observations of all 27 Ss, the mean at 12-mo follow-up reflects data from only 16 Ss (59% of the original sample). A recomputation of means using only the 16 Ss for whom measures from baseline through the 12-mo follow-up were available revealed substantially diminished treatment effects. The absence of an appropriate control group is also cited as an inadequacy in Patterson's investigation. A comparison of the level of deviant behavior of Ss during baseline with that of dropouts and normal Ss also indicated that the 16 Ss who completed the study were significantly less deviant in the home during baseline than dropouts, but not significantly different from normals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Industrial–organizational psychology: "Open thy ears O house of Israel."

Explores the relationship between industrial–organizational psychology and common sense from several approaches. First, literature is reviewed pertaining to the inherent problems of developing a science of human behavior in the context of commonly held beliefs about the subject. Second, the results of a study are presented that indicate that 359 nonpsychologists (college students and managerial groups) were able to intuit the findings of recent research in industrial–organizational psychology and, therefore, that at least a portion of this discipline is commonsensical. Finally, it is suggested that the commonsense character of the discipline may be traced to matters about which psychologists have received repeated warnings in the past. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological comments on labels, traits, interaction, and types in the study of "femininity" and "masculinity": Reply to Spence.

Concurs with the comments of J. T. Spence (see record 1983-24779-001) about the present authors' (see record 1983-24773-001) work in that the labels "femininity" and "masculinity" refer to a multidimensional domain and have been used inappropriately for scales that measure more circumscribed gender-related traits such as dominance and nurturance. It is nevertheless possible to investigate more encompassing constructs, such as androgyny and gender identity, through appropriate multivariate methods that incorporate, for example, interactions between dominance, nurturance, and other gender-related variables. The study of interactions among measures of individual differences should also be distinguished from a search for "real types." (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the development of contingency theories of leadership: Some methodological considerations and a possible alternative.

Suggests that the continuing difficulty in replicating contingency leadership theory predictions stems from little realized assumptions inherent in the approach. Some assumptions involve, in essence, knowledge of parameter values prior to the research. An alternative strategy is offered. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Testing the robustness of the job demands-resources model": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Testing the Robustness of the Job Demands-Resources Model" by Susana Llorens, Arnold B. Bakker, Wilmar Schaufeli and Marisa Salanova (International Journal of Stress Management, 2006[Aug], Vol 13[3], 378-391). Several corrections of errata in a paper by the authors published in the 2006 issue of the International Journal of Stress Management are presented: (1) The sentence beginning on page 385, line 16 should read "To avoid identification problems, the error variance of Organizational commitment and Emotional load were constrained using the formula (1 - α) × sigma2." (2) The sentence on page 385, line 18, should be deleted. (3) Degrees of freedom for M3 in Table 2 were incorrectly reported. The correct degrees of freedom were 54. The corrected table is provided. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2006-10511-007.) According to the job demands-resources (JD-R) model, job demands and resources evoke two relatively independent processes: health impairment and employee motivation. The robustness of the JD-R model was tested in two different occupational samples, the first of 654 Spanish employees and the second of 477 Dutch employees. Structural equation modeling analyses provided partial evidence for the two processes. Multigroup analyses showed that the structural paths of the model were invariant across countries, although the strength of the relationships differed. We conclude that the basic structure of the JD-R model is maintained, even when applied in different national and occupational contexts, when using different ways of gathering data (computerized versus paper and pencil), and when using slightly different measures to assess the key variables of the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the use of "indigenous paraprofessionals" in civil commitment procedures.

It is paradoxical that some recent attacks on establishment mental health practices, while seeming to advocate a "community" viewpoint and change based on rational argument, themselves selectively distort and fail to appreciate the diverse but essentially conservative nature of actual communities. One such example is the suggestion that lay individuals should participate in civil commitment, i.e., involuntary mental hospitalization, procedures. This suggestion has been offered, focusing on the Canadian context, by Bagby (1984). This article discusses the research and writings of Bagby, who offers a worthwhile, stimulating, and elaborately documented proposal for liberal reform, based on the position that commitment procedures in North America are biased and ineffective, and the article also further examines misattributions about communities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)