Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance.

A correlational study examined relationships between motivational orientation, self-regulated learning, and classroom academic performance for 173 seventh graders from eight science and seven English classes. A self-report measure of student self-efficacy, intrinsic value, test anxiety, self-regulation, and use of learning strategies was administered, and performance data were obtained from work on classroom assignments. Self-efficacy and intrinsic value were positively related to cognitive engagement and performance. Regression analyses revealed that, depending on the outcome measure, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and test anxiety emerged as the best predictors of performance. Intrinsic value did not have a direct influence on performance but was strongly related to self-regulation and cognitive strategy use, regardless of prior achievement level. The implications of individual differences in motivational orientation for cognitive engagement and self-regulation in the classroom are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal--setting process.

This study integrates ability, goal setting, self-efficacy, and multiple personality traits into a common framework that explains and predicts individual performance. A mediational model was tested using LISREL 8. Ability, learning goal orientation, and locus of control were positively related to self-efficacy, whereas performance goal orientation was negatively related to self-efficacy on an academic task. Self-efficacy and need for achievement were positively related to goal level, which was positively related to performance in combination with ability and self-efficacy. In addition to showing that personality traits can influence the motivational process at various stages, the results highlight the unique contributions of self-efficacy and goal level to the motivational process after the effects of ability and other individual differences have been identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship among self-concept, self-efficacy, and performance in mathematics during secondary school.

The relationship among self-concept, self-efficacy, and performance in mathematics was examined among 416 high school students. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing mathematics self-concept and mathematics self-efficacy. Performance was assessed using end-of-term exam results in mathematics. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the existence of two self-concept components--a competency component and an affective component. Self-efficacy items and the competency items of self-concept also loaded on a single factor. Social comparison information was equally influential in the formation of each construct. Self-efficacy beliefs, however, were identified as most highly related with performance in mathematics and percentages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of verbal and mathematics task performance on task and career self-efficacy and interest.

To test a hypothesis from self-efficacy theory, we randomly assigned 149 subjects to verbal or mathematics and success or failure conditions in which they attempted to solve easy or difficult anagram or number series tasks. Changes in task self-efficacy and task interest as a result of task success or failure were in accordance with predictions from self-efficacy theory. We also examined the generalizability of the effects of task performance. The results indicated that task performance effects generalized to self-efficacy and interest ratings on an irrelevant task and to global ratings of math and verbal ability. Task performance effects did not generalize to career self-efficacy and career interest measures but consistent gender differences in self-efficacy emerged as a result of both math and verbal task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality and quantity goals in a complex decision task: Strategies and outcomes.

Examined issues related to quality goals, quantity goals, and strategy development in a complex decision task. 160 undergraduates used a computer program to select stocks for investments. Manipulated variables included task difficulty, quantity-goal difficulty, and quality-goal difficulty. Differences among participants' information-search strategies were identified and analyzed. A quantity-goal effect on performance quantity, a 3-way interaction on performance quality, and a number of effects for search-strategy variables were found. Implications and future research directions are presented and discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of filmed versus personal after-event reviews on task performance: The mediating and moderating role of self-efficacy.

In the current study, we compared the effect of personal and filmed after-event reviews (AERs) on performance, and the role that self-efficacy plays in moderating and mediating the effects of these 2 types of AER on performance. The setting was one in which 49 men and 63 women participated twice in a simulated business decision-making task. In between, participants received a personal AER, watched a filmed AER, or had a break. We found that individuals who participated in an AER, whether personal or filmed, improved their performance significantly more than those who did not participate in a review. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in performance improvement between the personal and the filmed AER, which suggests that the 2 are quite similar in their effect. We also found that the differences in performance improvement between the personal AER group and the control group were somewhat greater than those found in the filmed AER group. Self-efficacy mediated the effect of AER on performance improvement in both types of AER. In addition, the effect of AER on performance improvement was moderated by initial self-efficacy in the personal but not in the filmed AER: The personal AER was more effective, the higher the initial self-efficacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of learning and performance in an associative memory/substitution task: Task constraints, individual differences, volition, and motivation.

The way that cognitive abilities, learning task characteristics, and motivational and volitional processes combine to explain individual differences in performance and learning was investigated. A substitution task was studied over practice, and it was discovered that students used 2 different strategies: a learning strategy focused on memorization and a performance strategy in which students persisted in scanning items. Five experiments investigated strategy differences and the ability and motivational correlates of task performance. First, ability correlates of performance and strategy use were demonstrated. Next, reducing task difficulty increased use of the learning strategy. With periodic memory tests, effective reliance on the learning strategy was increased, and task performance correlations with reasoning ability were lowered. Finally, a combination of self-focus and goal-setting interventions increased both general performance levels and use of the learning strategy. Results are discussed in terms of the goal of developing a more comprehensive understanding of learner differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Path analysis of the causal elements in Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and an anxiety-based model of avoidance behavior.

Employed path-analysis techniques to investigate the predictions of A. Bandura's (1977) model of self-efficacy and an anxiety-based model in the approach/avoidance behavior of 80 female college students attempting a modified back-dive. The Bandura model predicted that a reciprocal relationship existed between self-efficacy and back-diving performance and that self-efficacy was the mediator of back-diving performance. The anxiety-based model included performance, self-reported anxiety, and physiological arousal as causal influences of back-diving performance. Self-efficacy was hypothesized to be an effect rather than a causal influence of performance. Results provide little support for either model. A respecified model was proposed that included both previous performances and self-efficacy as predictors of back-diving performance. The respecified model explained more performance variance than did either of the other 2 models. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Predictive Validity of Self-Efficacy in Training Performance: Little More Than Past Performance.

Past research on the influence of self-efficacy in training has provided mixed results. Key differences between studies pertain to whether past performance is operationalized as a residual variable or as an unadjusted variable and to the type of task used. In this study, the authors conducted and performed a reanalysis to examine the influence of self-efficacy using both operationalizations of past performance in 2 experimental tasks. Results indicate that, regardless of task version or type, self-efficacy predicted performance only when a residual measure of past performance was used, but not when past performance was unadjusted. However, when past performance was adjusted, the findings for self-efficacy were likely a statistical artifact. These results suggest that self-efficacy is a consequence rather than a cause of performance in training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance.

A newly developed personality taxonomy suggests that self-esteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and neuroticism form a broad personality trait termed core self-evaluations. The authors hypothesized that this broad trait is related to motivation and performance. To test this hypothesis, 3 studies were conducted. Study 1 showed that the 4 dispositions loaded on 1 higher order factor. Study 2 demonstrated that the higher order trait was related to task motivation and performance in a laboratory setting. Study 3 showed that the core trait was related to task activity, productivity as measured by sales volume, and the rated performance of insurance agents. Results also revealed that the core self-evaluations trait was related to goal-setting behavior. In addition, when the 4 core traits were investigated as 1 nomological network, they proved to be more consistent predictors of job behaviors than when used in isolation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of goal difficulty on physiological arousal, cognition, and task performance.

Conducted 2 laboratory experiments with 117 undergraduates to examine (1) the effect of assigned goal difficulty on arousal (self-report and heart rate), cognition (perceived norm, self-efficacy strength, and personal goal), and behavioral (task performance) measures and (2) the role of heart rate as a mediator of the goal-difficulty–performance relation. All Ss performed a task requiring cognitive and physical responses. Results of both experiments demonstrate that assigned goal difficulty affected heart rate, cognition, and task performance and that heart rate change was positively related to the cognitive and behavioral measures. Regression analyses suggested that a cognitive–affective mechanism may mediate the goal-difficulty–performance relation. Discussion is focused on the theoretical and practical implications of integrating an arousal concept within goal-setting theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in, and consequences of, multiple- and variable-strategy use on a multitrial sort-recall task.

Second-, 3rd-, and 4th-grade children were given 5 sort-recall trials with different sets of categorizable items. The authors assessed multiple-strategy use on each trial and related intertrial changes in strategy use to levels of recall. Multiple-strategy use increased with age but was observed at all grades. Fourth graders who used more strategies had higher recall, with this pattern occurring only on later trials for 2nd and 3rd graders. Children of all ages showed substantial intertrial variability in using multiple strategies. Stable-strategy use (few strategy changes across trials) was related to high levels of recall, both for individual and group data, and was associated with the use of different numbers of strategies at different ages. Results were interpreted in light of new research and theory postulating that multiple- and variable-strategy use is the rule rather than the exception in development and that strategies do not always facilitate task performance (utilization deficiencies). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships of goal orientation, metacognitive activity, and practice strategies with learning outcomes and transfer.

A model of learning transfer that focused on the active role of the learner was developed and tested within a complex decision-making task. The study examined how individual differences, learning strategies, and training outcomes influenced transfer of learning to a more complex task. A sample of 93 undergraduate students participated in a 2-day radar operations study. Hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that mastery orientation was positively related to metacognitive activity of the learner. Metacognitive activity was significantly related to knowledge acquisition, skilled performance at the end of training, and self-efficacy. All 3 of these training outcomes were related to performance on the transfer task. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and sex differences in children's reports of dental anxiety and self-efficacy relating to dental visits.

In 2 related studies (cross-sectional and longitudinal) of the dental experience and behavior of 784 boys and 741 girls aged between 9 and 12 yrs, it was found that dental anxiety increased with age; sex differences became marked after age 9 yrs and girls contributed significantly more to the increase than boys. Self-efficacy ratings regarding future good behavior in the dental operatory were taken to reflect emotional processing of past dental experiences. Low self-efficacy predictions and perception of dental anxiety in peers contributed significantly to self-reports of dental anxiety. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When to fix it and when to leave: Relationships among perceived control, self-efficacy, dissent, and exit.

Using a sample of hospital nurses, the author tested the hypothesis that both self-efficacy and perceived control over decision making contribute to individuals' willingness to engage in reformist dissent when faced with injustice and to their intentions to exit. Reformist dissent is defined as dissent that occurs within the confines of an organization's rules and norms. Perceived control over decision making was expected to be positively related to willingness to engage in reformist dissent and to be inversely related to exit. Because it was expected that both dissent and exit require confidence, self-efficacy was predicted to be positively related to both dissent and exit. Control was positively related to willingness to dissent and inversely related to exit. Self-efficacy, however, predicted only dissent. Implications for worker well-being and retention are discussed, and directions for future research and theory development are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions, expectations, and task performance.

College students' performance on each of 2 chemistry tests (n?=?253 on the 1st test and 233 on the 2nd test) was classified as a success (or failure) if it met (or failed to meet) a minimum criterion of success that each S set prior to taking each test. Using a paired-comparison technique, Ss attributed their performance on each test to ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. Among Ss who succeeded on the tests, expected and actual future performance were positively related to attributions to high ability and negatively related to attributions to good luck. Among Ss who experienced failure, expected performance was positively related to attributions to low effort and negatively related to attributions to low ability. Results of these analyses are related to D. T. Hall's (1976) model of psychological success. In addition, although expectations were strongly related to subsequent performance, the relationship was substantially weakened when prior performance and ability attributions were held constant. The implications of this finding for understanding expectancy perceptions are discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task.

Investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on a heuristic computer task with 128 undergraduates who attempted to solve either easy or difficult maze puzzles. Each S was assigned either an easy, moderate, or difficult goal or told to do his/her best. One month prior to the experiment, Ss responded to the Neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory to collect data on arousal. Data were also collected on acceptance, commitment, task complexity, and performance. Results show that both goals and task difficulty affected task performance, arousal, and perceptions of task complexity. A linear, rather than curvilinear, relationship was found between task arousal and performance. Contrary to prior research by G. A. Bassett (see record 1980-33518-001), results also show that, when the task was difficult, the setting of a difficult goal led to significantly lower performance. The decrease in performance in the difficult goal condition was attributed to the variation in performance strategy employed by these Ss as opposed to other Ss. It is argued that the setting of difficult goals may not be an effective motivational strategy when a heuristic, rather than algorithmic, solution is needed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of aptitudes, strategy training, and task facets on spatial task performance.

A pilot study, with 8 high school students, demonstrated that 3 item characteristics accounted for most of the variation in item difficulty in a paper-folding task: number of folds, number of obscured folds, and number of asymmetric folds. Retrospective reports suggested that Ss employed 2 strategies when attempting to solve these items: a visualization strategy and an analytic strategy. In the main experiment, these 2 strategies were demonstrated via motion picture models; 24 Ss received visualization training, and 24 received analytic training. Training effects of the demonstration films were compared with a performance feedback condition given to 8 Ss. All Ss performed 74 paper-folding items and 60 surface development transfer items following treatment. Error and latency data suggested that the treatments affected strategy selection and efficiency on both tasks. Treatment effects depended on item characteristics and response mode as well as on Ss' fluid-analytic/visualization and verbal abilities, as assessed by the Concept Mastery Test, WAIS Vocabulary test, and Raven Progressive Matrices. Sex differences were also noted, with verbal ability being important in the performance of females but not males. Implications for a process theory of human abilities are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal orientation and task demand effects on motivation, affect, and performance.

Two studies tested the joint effects of goal orientation and task demands on motivation, affect, and performance, examining different factors affecting task demands. In Study 1 (N?=?199), task difficulty was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on performance and affect (i.e., satisfaction with performance). In Study 2 (N?≠&189), task consistency was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Results are discussed in relation to self-regulatory processes cued by goal orientations, attentional resource demands, and the need to match goal orientations to the nature of the task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The changing signs in the relationships among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance.

The common interpretation of the positive correlation among self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance is questioned. Using self-efficacy theory (A. Bandura, 1977), it was predicted that cross-sectional correlational results were a function of past performance's influence on self-efficacy, and using control theory (W. T. Powers, 1973), it was predicted that self-efficacy could negatively influence subsequent performance. These predictions were supported with 56 undergraduate participants, using a within-person procedure. Personal goals were also positively influenced by self-efficacy and performance but negatively related to subsequent performance. A 2nd study involving 185 undergraduates found that manipulated goal level positively predicted performance and self-efficacy positively predicted performance in the difficult-goal condition. The discussion focuses on conditions likely to affect the sign of the relationship among self-efficacy, goals, and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)