Expectancy, valence, and motivational force functions in goal-setting research: An empirical test.

Expectancy–valence (EV) theory has often been used as a model for understanding goal setting. The authors attempt to further distinguish within-person from across-person uses of EV theory concepts in the goal-setting literature and present a within-person empirical test. The key element of the approach examined here is that an assigned goal's initial effect is on the patterns formed across levels of potential task performance by a person's judgments of expectancy, valence, and motivational force (i.e., performance–expectancy, performance–valence, and performance–motivational force functions). By examining these functions, the authors make available more detailed information regarding the motivational effects of assigned goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of goal difficulty on physiological arousal, cognition, and task performance.

Conducted 2 laboratory experiments with 117 undergraduates to examine (1) the effect of assigned goal difficulty on arousal (self-report and heart rate), cognition (perceived norm, self-efficacy strength, and personal goal), and behavioral (task performance) measures and (2) the role of heart rate as a mediator of the goal-difficulty–performance relation. All Ss performed a task requiring cognitive and physical responses. Results of both experiments demonstrate that assigned goal difficulty affected heart rate, cognition, and task performance and that heart rate change was positively related to the cognitive and behavioral measures. Regression analyses suggested that a cognitive–affective mechanism may mediate the goal-difficulty–performance relation. Discussion is focused on the theoretical and practical implications of integrating an arousal concept within goal-setting theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: A meta-analysis.

Much evidence exists that supports the use of goal setting as a motivational technique for enhancing task performance; however, little attention has been given to the role of task characteristics as potential moderating conditions of goal effects. Meta-analysis procedures were used to assess the moderator effects of task complexity for goal-setting studies conducted from 1966 to 1985 (n?=?125). The reliability of the task complexity ratings was .92. Three sets of analyses were conducted: for goal-difficulty results (hard vs. easy), for goal specificity–difficulty (specific difficult goals vs. do-best or no goal), and for all studies collapsed across goal difficulty and goal specificity–difficulty. It was generally found that goal-setting effects were strongest for easy tasks (reaction time, brainstorming), d?=?.76, and weakest for more complex tasks (business game simulations, scientific and engineering work, faculty research productivity), d?=?.42. Implications for future research on goal setting and the validity of generalizing results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of information, choice and task complexity upon goal acceptance, performance, and personal goals.

Tested the hypothesis that information about a goal and/or task, choice in setting a strategy to achieve a goal, and task complexity interact to influence goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance. A laboratory experiment with 96 college students working on a class-scheduling task was used to test the hypothesis. The task consisted of producing mock class schedules consisting of 5 nonredundant classes. The Ss were assigned to either high-information, choice manipulation, or task-complexity conditions. Ss were administered a questionnaire assessing goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance prior to and on completion of the task. Results of 3-way ANOVA conducted on measures of goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance supported the hypotheses that choice in goal-setting and the provision of information interact as do information and task complexity. A 2nd study conducted to generalize these findings also supported the hypotheses. In the 2nd study, 40 animal caregivers (average age 28 yrs) were participants in a replication of the laboratory experiment with task complexity as a repeated-measures factor. Findings are discussed as a means of expanding the position of participation within the goal-setting model. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 70(2) of Journal of Applied Psychology (see record 2008-10965-001). The third line was left out on p. 696, top right column. The entire section should read as follows: "Figure 1 compares the goals on T-1 with the mean goals chosen on T-2 by the same groups of subjects (i.e., grouped according to T-1 goals). On T-2 the mean goal levels of the seven original groups ranged from 4.8 to 12.9, in contrast with the T-1 range of 2 to 26."] 231 undergraduates were asked to list from 2–26 uses for common objects depending on the level of difficulty of the section (1 of 7) to which they were assigned. Ss were given a 1-min practice trial after task explanations and were then administered 2 experimental trials. Ss were told they were free to change their goals to a higher or lower level for the 2nd trial if they did not like the goal they had been assigned. Results show that Ss chose more difficult goals, if the assigned goals had been easy, and easier goals, if the assigned goals had been difficult. Ss were heavily influenced in their self-set goals by their previously assigned goals. The performance of Ss with impossible goals did not drop on the 2nd trial. A goal–expectancy interaction was found on the 2nd trial that was due to expectancy being positively related to performance at the higher but not the lower goal levels. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of task-goal attributes in employee performance.

Many studies have demonstrated the relatively successful performance implications of formalized goal-setting programs in organizations. However, these findings typically do not identify the specific factors behind such techniques that are largely responsible for their success. Toward this end, research relating to 6 factor analytically derived attributes of employees' task goals is reviewed to ascertain which attributes are more consistently related to performance. The 6 task-goal attributes are goal specificity, participation in goal setting, feedback, peer competition, goal difficulty, and goal acceptance. Although goal specificity and goal acceptance were found to be most consistently related to performance, several intervening variables emerged that tended to affect significantly the impact of certain attributes on performance. Findings are discussed within a motivational framework. It is argued, based on the data, that performance under goal-setting conditions is a function of at least 3 important variables: the nature of the task goals, additional situational-environmental factors, and individual differences. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived performance norm as a mediator in the effect of assigned goal on personal goal and task performance.

We conducted two experiments to test the hypothesis that assigned goals affect personal goals and task performance, in part, by providing normative information about the task. Normative information inferred from the goal was expected to influence performance expectancy and performance valence, which, in turn, would affect personal goal and, ultimately, performance. In Experiment 1, 60 undergraduate students were assigned performance goals of varying difficulty on a brainstorming task, and measures of perceived norm, performance expectancy, performance valence, personal goal, and task performance were obtained. Results of analyses of covariance and path analysis were generally consistent with the proposed cognitive mediation model. In Experiment 2, information about the performance norm was manipulated independently of goal difficulty for 135 undergraduates working on the same brainstorming task. Results of similar analyses revealed that (a) the effects of goal difficulty observed in Experiment 1 were attenuated by the presentation of normative information and (b) performance norm had significant effects on all of the dependent variables. The findings have implications for the integration of motivation theories and for the use of goal setting as a motivational technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Effect of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance": Correction to Locke, Frederick, Buckner, and Bobko.

Reports an error in "Effect of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance" by Edwin A. Locke, Elizabeth Frederick, Elizabeth Buckner and Philip Bobko (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1984[Nov], Vol 69[4], 694-699). The third line was left out on p. 696, top right column. The entire section should read as follows: "Figure 1 compares the goals on T-1 with the mean goals chosen on T-2 by the same groups of subjects (i.e., grouped according to T-1 goals). On T-2 the mean goal levels of the seven original groups ranged from 4.8 to 12.9, in contrast with the T-1 range of 2 to 26." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1985-08583-001.) 231 undergraduates were asked to list from 2–26 uses for common objects depending on the level of difficulty of the section (1 of 7) to which they were assigned. Ss were given a 1-min practice trial after task explanations and were then administered 2 experimental trials. Ss were told they were free to change their goals to a higher or lower level for the 2nd trial if they did not like the goal they had been assigned. Results show that Ss chose more difficult goals, if the assigned goals had been easy, and easier goals, if the assigned goals had been difficult. Ss were heavily influenced in their self-set goals by their previously assigned goals. The performance of Ss with impossible goals did not drop on the 2nd trial. A goal–expectancy interaction was found on the 2nd trial that was due to expectancy being positively related to performance at the higher but not the lower goal levels. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative analysis of goal-setting strategies across cultures.

Only a few studies that have examined the effects of participation on an individual's goal acceptance and performance have been conducted within a cross-cultural context. In the present study, we tested for the contingency between the effectiveness of goal-setting strategies and cultural values. We examined three goal-setting strategies within three different cultural groups—assigned goals, goals participatively set by a group representative and the experimenter, and goals participatively set by a group. The three cultural groups studied were U.S. students (n?=?60), individualistic and having a high power distance; Israeli students from urban areas (n?=?60), collectivistic and having a low power distance; and Israeli students from kibbutzim (n?=?60), highly collectivistic and having a low power distance. Results indicated that participative strategies led to higher levels of goal acceptance and performance than the assigned strategy. Culture did not moderate the effect of goal-setting strategies on goal acceptance, but it appeared to moderate the strategy on performance for extremely difficult goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980.

Results from a review of laboratory and field studies on the effects of goal setting on performance show that in 90% of the studies, specific and challenging goals led to higher performance than easy goals, "do your best" goals, or no goals. Goals affect performance by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and motivating strategy development. Goal setting is most likely to improve task performance when the goals are specific and sufficiently challenging, Ss have sufficient ability (and ability differences are controlled), feedback is provided to show progress in relation to the goal, rewards such as money are given for goal attainment, the experimenter or manager is supportive, and assigned goals are accepted by the individual. No reliable individual differences have emerged in goal-setting studies, probably because the goals were typically assigned rather than self-set. Need for achievement and self-esteem may be the most promising individual difference variables. (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of goal level to performance with a short work period and multiple goal levels.

Conducted a 1-min goal-setting experiment with 247 undergraduates assigned to 14 goal levels. Ss had to think of uses for common objects within their 1 min. A significant curvilinear relationship was found between goal level and performance level. Goals were linearly related to performance when the goals ranged from easy to difficult but were unrelated to performance after goals became impossible. Performance, however, did not drop as goals reached impossible levels, since nearly all Ss were at least trying to get as close as they could to the goal. Variance in mean performance was positively related to goal level across the entire range of goal levels. Ability was unrelated to performance within the easy to difficult goal range but was significantly related to ability within the impossible goal range. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation, behavior, and performance: A closer examination of goal setting and monetary incentives.

Some experimenters often test predictions from theories of motivation using performance outcomes as dependent variables. It is argued that observable behaviors that are likely to be affected by motivation manipulations should be used in combination with performance outcomes. Such procedures would be sensitive to differential effects of manipulations on various behaviors and would allow for investigation of relationships among behaviors and performance outcomes. For this experiment, 60 17–23 yr olds were hired to work individually on a 2-hr construction task. Ss were assigned to 1 of 2 pay conditions (piece-rate vs hourly) and 1 of 3 goal-setting conditions (no goal, quantity, or quality) resulting in a 2?×?3 crossed analysis of variance design. Dependent variables included 3 measures of effort, 3 measures of direction of behavior, and both quantity and quality performance. Method of payment affected quantity performance and effort. Goal setting affected quantity and quality performance and direction of behavior. Implications for designing and testing work motivation systems are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of learning and performance in an associative memory/substitution task: Task constraints, individual differences, volition, and motivation.

The way that cognitive abilities, learning task characteristics, and motivational and volitional processes combine to explain individual differences in performance and learning was investigated. A substitution task was studied over practice, and it was discovered that students used 2 different strategies: a learning strategy focused on memorization and a performance strategy in which students persisted in scanning items. Five experiments investigated strategy differences and the ability and motivational correlates of task performance. First, ability correlates of performance and strategy use were demonstrated. Next, reducing task difficulty increased use of the learning strategy. With periodic memory tests, effective reliance on the learning strategy was increased, and task performance correlations with reasoning ability were lowered. Finally, a combination of self-focus and goal-setting interventions increased both general performance levels and use of the learning strategy. Results are discussed in terms of the goal of developing a more comprehensive understanding of learner differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does self-regulation require cognitive resources? Evaluation of resource allocation models of goal setting.

The resource allocation model of goal setting (R. Kanfer & P. L. Ackerman, 1989) maintains that self-regulation initiated through goal setting requires attentional resources that could be more productively applied to skill acquisition and complex task performance. The current study questioned this hypothesis because attentional resources had not been directly manipulated or measured in studies supporting the model. Thus, alternative explanations that are based on other complex task goal-setting models cannot be excluded. As a direct test of the resource allocation hypothesis, dual task methodology was used to measure the attentional resource requirements of self-regulation. Even at the limits of human information processing, participants who were assigned difficult, specific goals performed at least as well on the secondary task as did individuals with do-your-best goals. These findings suggest that self-regulation does not necessarily require attentional resources. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal importance, self-focus, and the goal-setting process.

In this study we examine the role played by perceived goal importance and self-focus in the goal-setting process. More specifically, this study tests the interactive hypotheses that (a) task performance is a function of goal level, self-focus, and perceived goal importance; (b) goal level is a function of perceptions of past performance, self-focus, and perceived goal importance; and (c) perceptions of past performance are a function of actual past performance, self-focus, and perceived goal importance. Hierarchical regression analysis, using a sample of 88 retail salespersons, revealed empirical support for the first two hypotheses. Specifically, the variables described by control theory account for an increment of 6 and 8% of the variance explained in task performance and self-set goal level, respectively. Finally, implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conscientiousness, goal orientation, and motivation to learn during the learning process: A longitudinal study.

Conscientiousness and goal orientation were examined as (a) predictors of motivation to learn and (b) moderators of reactions to performance levels during the learning process, using an Expectancy X Valence framework. Learners (N?=?103) participated in a 6-week course in which an objective performance goal was assigned. Results indicated that conscientiousness and learning orientation were positively related to motivation to learn both initially and after performance feedback was given, whereas performance orientation was negatively related to motivation to learn at those 2 time periods. In addition, learning and performance orientation moderated the relationships between performance levels during the learning process and subsequent expectancy and valence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuating the positive: Eliciting generalized compliance from children through activity-oriented requests.

Investigated the effectiveness of activity-oriented requests as a technique for enhancing children's generalized subsequent compliance with other adult requests; 54 nursery school children, 3.7–5.9 yrs old, were studied. In Session 1, experimental Ss were asked to perform a chore and encouraged to make this task more enjoyable by either (a) generating a series of subgoals against which their own performance could be measured or (b) imagining the task to be part of a larger fantasy of inherent interest. Some Ss were offered a choice of particular goal-setting or fantasy-transformation strategies; others were assigned specific strategies. Two weeks later, Ss were asked to perform another task by a 2nd experimenter who was blind to the results of Session 1. Compared to appropriate controls, Ss who had been assigned either a goal-setting or a fantasy-transformation strategy showed increased compliance to the later adult request. Ss who chose their own strategies did not show enhanced compliance. Further analyses suggested that these effects on generalized compliance during Session 2 did not depend on differences in prior behavior during Session 1. Implications for enhancing children's compliance in home and school settings are discussed. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis.

Goals are central to current treatments of work motivation, and goal commitment is a critical construct in understanding the relationship between goals and task performance. Despite this importance, there is confusion about the role of goal commitment and only recently has this key construct received the empirical attention it warrants. This meta-analysis, based on 83 independent samples, updates the goal commitment literature by summarizing the accumulated evidence on the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment. Using this aggregate empirical evidence, the role of goal commitment in the goal-setting process is clarified and key areas for future research are identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance and knowledge of results as determinants of goal setting.

Found that previous performance on a simple addition task exerted a significant positive impact on the goal levels set by 22 male and 58 female undergraduates. When performance effects were accounted for, knowledge of results (kr) also influenced goals significantly. When the effects of 4 forms of kr were compared, correct kr increased goal level significantly above that generated by no kr, while incomplete kr increased goal level insignificantly, and erroneous low kr decreased performance below the level associated with no kr. Implications for administrative practice and goal-setting theory are discussed. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Importance of participative goal setting and anticipated rewards on goal difficulty and job performance.

In Study 1, 76 engineers/scientists either participated in the setting of, or were assigned, specific behavioral goals during their performance appraisal. Participative goal setting resulted in more difficult goals being set than was the case when the goals were assigned. Perceptions of goal difficulty, however, were not significantly different in the 2 goal-setting conditions. In Study 2, the analysis of the performance data collected 6 mo later on 132 engineers/scientists revealed main effects for both goal setting and anticipated rewards. Only participative goal setting led to significantly higher performance than a "do your best" and a control group condition. There was no significant difference between the performance of the latter 2 conditions despite the fact that the individuals in the do-your-best group received knowledge of results. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)