Antimicrobials for reduction of Salmonella contamination in uncooked, surface-browned breaded chicken products

Surface-browned but uncooked frozen breaded chicken products have been associated with salmonellosis outbreaks due to inadequate or no cooking of the products before consumption. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of three antimicrobials against Salmonella during manufacture of a surface-browned, uncooked frozen breaded chicken meat product. Fresh chicken breast meat portions (5 by 5 by 5 cm) were inoculated (4 to 5 log CFU/g) with Salmonella and mixed with caprylic acid (CAA; 0.5 and 1.0%), carvacrol (CAR; 0.3 and 0.5%), ε-polylysine (POL; 0.125 and 0.25%), or distilled water (control). Sodium chloride (1.2%) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0.3%) were added to all treatments, and the mixtures were ground (5% total moisture enhancement level) and formed into portions (9 by 5 by 3 cm). The products were breaded and surface browned by baking in an oven (208°C for 15 min) or deep frying in vegetable oil (190°C for 15 s), packaged in polyethylene bags, and stored at -20°C for 7 days. Total reductions of inoculated Salmonella in untreated control oven- or fryer-browned products after frozen storage were 1.2 and 0.8 log CFU/g, respectively. In comparison, treatment with CAA, CAR, or POL reduced initial pathogen counts by 3.3 to >4.5, 4.1 to >4.7, and 1.1 to 1.6 log CFU/g, respectively, regardless of the antimicrobial concentration and browning method. Treatment with 1.0% CAA (oven browned) or 0.5% CAR (oven or fryer browned) reduced Salmonella to nondetectable levels (<0.3 log CFU/g) in stored frozen products. These data may be useful for development of suitable antimicrobial treatments to reduce the risk of Salmonella contamination in surface-browned, uncooked frozen breaded chicken products.     

Frozen chicken nuggets and strips--a newly identified risk factor for Salmonella Heidelberg infection in British Columbia, Canada

Salmonella enterica var. Heidelberg was isolated from an unusual food source during routine case follow-up, prompting a case control investigation of frozen chicken nuggets and strips. Most frozen nuggets and strips are raw; however, par-frying lends a cooked appearance. As such, suitable food preparation precautions might not be undertaken by consumers. Cases were confirmed in the laboratory between 1 January and 1 April 2003. Controls were generated through forward-digit dialing and individually matched by age category. Telephone interviews were conducted, and limited sampling of unopened product was performed. Eighteen matched pairs were interviewed. The odds of infection were 11 times higher in individuals who had consumed frozen processed chicken nuggets and strips (95% confidence interval, 1.42 < odds ratio < 85.20). One-third of cases and controls considered frozen nuggets and strips to be precooked, and one quarter used the microwave, an ill-advised cooking method. Consumer misconceptions contributed to the risk of infection. Clear labels identifying nuggets and strips as raw poultry are needed.     

Salmonella infections in food workers identified through routine Public Health Surveillance in Minnesota: impact on outbreak recognition

The frequency of Salmonella-infected food workers identified through routine surveillance from 1997 to 2004 in Minnesota was determined in order to evaluate the impact of surveillance on the detection of outbreaks in restaurants and to quantify the duration of Salmonella shedding in stool. Of 4,976 culture-confirmed Salmonella cases reported to the Minnesota Department of Health, 110 (2.2%) were identified as food workers; this was less than one-half the number expected based on the incidence of Salmonella in the general population. Twenty food workers (18%) were associated with outbreaks. Twelve were involved in nine independent outbreaks at the restaurants where they worked. The identification of the index food worker in six of these outbreaks was critical to the initiation of outbreak investigations that revealed much larger problems. Among food workers who submitted specimens until at least one negative result was obtained (n = 69), the median duration of shedding was 22 days (range, 1 to 359 days). Among the four most common serotypes (Enteritidis, Typhimurium, Heidelberg, and Newport) the median duration of shedding was significantly longer for Salmonella Newport (80 days; P = 0.02) and for Salmonella Enteritidis (32 days; P = 0.04) than for Salmonella Heidelberg (8 days). Food workers should be considered an important source of Salmonella transmission, and those identified through surveillance should raise a high index of suspicion of a possible outbreak at their place of work. Food service managers need to be alert to Salmonella-like illnesses among food workers to facilitate prevention and control efforts, including exclusion of infected food workers or restriction of their duties.     

Source attribution of nontyphoid salmonellosis in new zealand using outbreak surveillance data

In this study, 204 New Zealand outbreaks of non-typhoid salmonellosis reported from 2000 to 2009 were analyzed for information on the sources of human infection. Data were extracted from the outbreak module of EpiSurv, New Zealand's notifiable diseases database, and augmented with information from individual case reports and separate investigation reports. The outbreaks involved 1,426 cases, representing an estimated 9% of the total salmonellosis cases reported for the study period. Salmonella Typhimurium was the causative serotype in 78% of 172 outbreaks for which a serotype was available, involving 71% of outbreak cases. The most commonly reported outbreak setting was the home (47% of outbreaks), followed by commercial food operations (31%). Foodborne transmission was reported for 63% of the 123 outbreaks for which only one mode of transmission was reported, followed by person-to-person transmission (32%), waterborne transmission (3%), and zoonotic transmission (2%). However, evidence for the mode of transmission was weak or absent for 107 (63%) of the 169 outbreaks for which a mode of transmission was reported. For only 22 outbreaks was laboratory evidence successfully used to identify a potential source of infection. Of these 22 outbreaks, 7 were foodborne, 11 involved an infected food handler, 2 were attributed to contact with animals, 1 was attributed to consumption of drinking water, and 1 was attributed to multiple sources. The laboratory-confirmed contaminated foods were diverse and included imported and domestically produced foods. The results of this analysis support the hypothesis that non-typhoid salmonellosis is primarily a foodborne disease in New Zealand, but there is insufficient evidence to confirm important food vehicles.     

STABILITY AND ACCEPTABILITY OF PHOSPHATE-TREATED AND PRECOOKED CHICKEN PIECES REHEATED WITH MICROWAVE ENERGY

A procedure for precooking and reheating chicken with microwave energy, suitable for a centralized processing operation, was evaluated. Chicken pieces, with and without a sodium polyphosphate marination and precooked using microwave energy and steam followed by breading and browning, were compared with those breaded and precooked in corn oil under pressure. All pieces were individually quick frozen (IQF), packaged and later reheated with microwave energy. One-half of the pieces were stored for 3 months under fluctuating temperature conditions. Prestorage chicken was more acceptable than that held 3 months under fluctuating temperatures. Phosphate-treated fresh chicken was more juicy and tender than controls, and highest yields were obtained by a combination of phosphate marination and microwave-steam precooking.     

Archiving of food samples from restaurants and caterers--quantitative profiling of outbreaks of foodborne salmonellosis in Japan

The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (former MHW) of Japan issued a Directive in 1997 advising restaurants and caterers to freeze portions of both raw food and cooked dishes for at least 2 weeks. This system has been useful for determining vehicle foods at outbreaks. Enumeration of bacteria in samples of stored food provide data about pathogen concentrations in the implicated food. Data on Salmonella concentrations in vehicle foods associated with salmonellosis outbreaks were collected in Japan between 1989 and 1998. The 39 outbreaks that occurred during this period were categorized by the settings where the outbreaks took place, and epidemiological data from each outbreak were summarized. Characteristics of outbreak groups were analyzed and compared. The effect of new food-storage system on determination of bacterial concentration was evaluated. Freezing and nonfreezing conditions prior to microbial examination were compared in the dose-response relationship. Data from outbreaks in which implicated foods had been kept frozen suggested apparent correlation between the Salmonella dose ingested and the disease rate. Combined with results of epidemiological investigation, quantitative data from the ingested pathogen could provide complete dose-response data sets.     

Development and use of polymerase chain reaction for the specific detection of Salmonella Typhimurium in stool and food samples.

Salmonella Typhimurium is one of the most important Salmonella serovars that may cause foodborne disease and human salmonellosis infection. Detection of this organism in the clinical samples of persons with gastroenteritis and the food samples associated with such persons may allow us to trace the cause of disease. Because malic acid dehydrogenase, an enzyme of the citric acid cycle, is common to organisms, the gene (mdh) coding for this enzyme was selected for the design of Salmonella Typhimurium-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers. By comparison of the mdh gene sequences of Salmonella Typhimurium and other Salmonella serotypes and of some isolates of other genera, two oligonucleotides were designed and used as PCR primers for the specific detection of Salmonella Typhimurium. The molecular weight of the PCR product was 261 bp as expected. Salmonella serovars other than Salmonella Typhimurium and isolates of other genera in the Enterobacteriaceae that is closely related to Salmonella did not generate any false-positive results. When this primer pair was used for the detection of Salmonella Typhimurium cells artificially inoculated into human stool specimens and food samples, such as milk and raw chicken meat, levels as low as 10(0) CFU per 0.1 g of stool specimen or per ml of milk or food homogenate could be detected if an 8- to 12-h preculture step using combined lactose-tetrathionate broth was performed prior to the PCR.     

Quantitative risk assessment of human salmonellosis from the consumption of a turkey product in collective catering establishments

The quantitative risk assessment (QRA) approach recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission was used to assess the risk of human salmonellosis from the consumption of 'cordon bleu', a specific turkey product, in collective catering establishments (CCEs) of a French department. The complete process was modeled and simulated, from the initial storage in the CCE freezer to the consumption, using a Monte Carlo simulation software. Data concerning the prevalence of contaminated 'cordon bleu', the level of contamination of Salmonella, the cooking and storage process were collected from 21 CCEs and 8 retailers of 'cordon bleu' in the selected department. Thermal inactivation kinetics for Salmonella were established to estimate the effect of heat treatment on the concentration in the product and to calculate the dose that could be ingested by the consumer. The Beta-Poisson dose-response model of Rose and Gerba [Water Science and Technology 24 (1991) 29] with the specific parameters for Salmonella was used to estimate the probability of infection related to the ingestion of a particular dose and a factor was applied to estimate the probability of illness from ingestion. The individual risk of salmonellosis, the risk of outbreak and the number of cases were calculated using Monte Carlo simulation method. The risk of salmonellosis was close to zero when the 'cordons bleus' were cooked in the oven. Therefore, the risk was calculated for the fryer cooking since the insufficient cooking time observed was, sometimes, at the origin of low temperatures (37-89 degrees C). The influence of both the initial concentration of Salmonella in the product and the heat storage before consumption on the final risk was studied. For a high initial concentration of Salmonella in the product, when the 'cordons bleus' are fryer cooked, the average risk of salmonellosis was equal to 3.95 x 10(-3) without storage before consumption and 2.8 x 10(-4) if the product is consumed after storage. This paper presents the results of the QRA and discusses risk management options to minimize the risk of salmonellosis.     

Effect of coffee filtrate, methylglyoxal, glyoxal, and caffeine on Salmonella typhimurium and S. enteritidis survival in ground chicken breasts

The antimicrobial effect of roasted coffee filtrate (CF) and dicarbonyls on Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in raw ground chicken breast meat (GCB) was investigated. Coffee was brewed and filtered before addition to GCB. Coffee filtrate with and without added caffeine, methylglyoxal, and/or glyoxal was added to GCB and then inoculated with Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis. Ground chicken samples were stomached with peptone water at days 1, 3, 5, and 7, plated on XLD agar with a TSA overlay, and Salmonella survivors were enumerated. CF alone gave less than a 1 Log reduction in all runs compared to control GCB with no treatment. Methylglyoxal (2.28 mg/g GCB) had the greatest antimicrobial effect against Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in GCB with average Log reductions of 2.27 to 3.23, respectively, over the 7 d duration of the experiment compared to control GCB with no treatment. A 1 Log reduction was observed in GCB with CF, 0.93 mg glyoxal, and 1 mg caffeine/g chicken compared to the control and GCB with only CF. Heat-produced coffee compounds could potentially reduce Salmonella in retail ground chicken and chicken products.     

A summary of national reports of foodborne outbreaks of Salmonella Heidelberg infections in the United States: clues for disease prevention

We analyzed national foodborne outbreak data from 1973 through 2001 to determine the proportion of Salmonella Heidelberg outbreaks caused by specific foods. Among 6633 outbreaks with known etiology, 184 (3%) were caused by Salmonella Heidelberg. A vehicle was identified in 101 outbreaks; at least 53 were poultry or egg-related. Three outbreaks were attributed to egg consumption, 17 to consumption of egg-containing foods, 25 to poultry, and 8 to foods containing poultry and eggs. Efforts to reduce illness due to Salmonella Heidelberg shouldensure that poultry and eggs are handled appropriately to minimize contamination and cross contamination.     

Salmonella outbreaks in restaurants in Minnesota, 1995 through 2003: evaluation of the role of infected foodworkers

The 23 restaurant-associated salmonellosis outbreaks that occurred in Minnesota from 1995 through 2003 were reviewed to characterize the role of infected foodworkers. The median duration of the outbreaks was 21 days (range, 1 to 517 days). The median number of culture-confirmed patron cases per outbreak was seven (range, 1 to 36 cases). The median incubation for patron cases ranged from 9 h to 5.9 days. A specific food vehicle was implicated in four outbreaks and suspected in five. Salmonella of the same serotype and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis subtype as that found in patrons was recovered from foodworkers in 19 outbreaks. Overall, 12% (129 of 1,033) of foodworkers tested positive for Salmonella. Sixty-four (53%) of 121 Salmonella-positive foodworkers reported not having had a recent gastrointestinal illness. Overall, the median duration of Salmonella shedding was 16 days. Among foodworkers who reported gastrointestinal illness, the median shedding duration was 30 days as compared with 3 days for asymptomatic foodworkers. Positive environmental samples were recovered in 4 (33%) of 12 outbreaks. No specific food vehicle was identified in any outbreaks associated with Salmonella-positive environmental samples. The median duration of outbreaks with positive environmental samples (187 days) was significantly longer than the median duration of outbreaks with negative environmental results (26 days, P = 0.03). A higher proportion of Salmonella-positive foodworkers (22 versus 8%) was identified in outbreaks with positive environmental samples. Salmonella outbreaks in restaurants are frequently prolonged yet produce a small number of confirmed patron cases. Prolonged outbreak durations suggest a persistent reservoir of contamination. Infected foodworkers likely serve as an important source for Salmonella transmission. Therefore, assessment of foodworker infection is essential for controlling restaurant outbreaks.     

Salmonella in sesame seed products

In the context of an international outbreak of multiresistant Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 that was correlated to the consumption of halvah ("helva," an Asian candy made from sesame seed), we examined several sesame seed products for the occurrence of Salmonella. Of 117 ready-to-eat food items containing sesame, we isolated salmonellae from 11 (9.4%) samples. In addition to finding Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104 in the halvah involved in the outbreak, we also isolated different Salmonella Typhimurium strains out of halvah from other manufacturers and countries of origin, as well as Salmonella Offa, Salmonella Tennessee, and Salmonella Poona from sesame paste (tahini) and sesame seed, which is sold for raw consumption in cereals.     

The influence of dietary lipid source on quality characteristics of raw and processed chicken meat

The influence of dietary lipid source [animal fats (AF) and vegetable oils (VO)] on quality characteristics of raw chicken meat (breast, thigh and meat batter) and cooked breaded patties prepared using a conventional technology (CT; forming, battering, breading, frying and convection cooking) or innovative technology (IT; forming, pre-dusting, steam cooking, battering and frying) was evaluated. Overall, dietary lipid source did not influence the chemical composition of raw meat while it modified its colour (L*, a*, b*). With respect to AF, VO produced higher breast and thigh meat cooking losses as well as a lower moisture and higher protein content of cooked breaded patties. VO also determined an increase of polyunsaturated-to-saturated fatty acid ratio of both raw and processed meat. Despite the different fatty acid profiles, the oxidative status of lipids was not affected by dietary lipid source and was acceptable in both raw meat and cooked patties as indicated by peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance values. As for the processing technology, IT determined a higher moisture and lower lipid content of the cooked breaded patties. Moreover, lipolysis degree was slightly higher in the products coming from IT. Finally, patties from AF group were lighter and more yellow than products belonging to VO group whereas IT led to lighter, less red and more yellow patties in comparison to CT.     

Monte Carlo simulations assessing the risk of salmonellosis from consumption of almonds

Recent outbreaks of salmonellosis associated with raw almonds have raised awareness of this food as a vector for foodborne illness. We performed a quantitative assessment of the risk of contracting salmonellosis from consumption of raw almonds, accounting for factors that become important after almonds reach the processor. We estimated the risk associated with the consumption of raw almonds and the risk reduction associated with almonds treated with a theoretical 5-log reduction process or treated with propylene oxide using a standard commercial process. Probability distributions were chosen to describe the chance of almond contamination and the effects of storage time, storage temperature, and processing from currently available data. A beta-Poisson model for the dose-response relationship for Salmonella was obtained from published literature. The simulation estimated a 78% chance of one or more cases of salmonellosis per year from consumption of raw almonds. The application of a commercial propylene oxide treatment reduced this risk to 0.01%. Hypothetical 5-log reduction treatments with different standard deviations (+/-1, +/-0.5, +/-0.1, and +/-0) reduced the predicted yearly risk of salmonellosis to 0.69, 0.35, 0.30, and 0.21%, respectively. These results suggest that the risk of one or more U.S. cases of salmonellosis per year from consumption of raw almonds can be reduced from 78% to less than 1% by using a process achieving a 5-log reduction in Salmonella with a process standard deviation as large as 1 log unit or by using a commercial propylene oxide treatment.     

Effect of processing technology on the quality and composition of lipids of precooked chicken patties

The effect of processing technology on the quality and composition of lipids of raw meat and precooked ready-to-eat fried chicken patties was studied. Chicken cutlets were obtained by two processing technologies, which mainly differed by the order of the applied thermal treatments (flash-frying and humid steam-convection oven cooking). In the traditional technology, samples were flash-fried and then subjected to oven-cooking, whereas these two processing phases were inverted for the innovative one. Lipid hydrolysis (total fatty acids, free fatty acids, diacylglycerols, free cholesterol) and oxidation [peroxide value (POV) and cholesterol oxidation products (COP)] were evaluated in the raw meat, prefinal and final products. Lipid hydrolysis was significantly more intense in the final products obtained by the innovative technology, whereas no significant differences were found in the oxidation parameters between the products obtained by the two processing lines.     

Prevalence and amounts of Salmonella found on raw California almonds

Data on the prevalence and populations of pathogens in individual foods are critical to the development of product-specific quantitative microbial risk assessments. An outbreak of salmonellosis associated with the consumption of raw almonds in 2000 to 2001 provided an opportunity to evaluate the levels of Salmonella in the recalled product. Duplicate 100-g samples from each of fifty 22.7-kg boxes of recalled almonds were enriched by one of two methods. Salmonella was isolated by at least one method from 42 boxes (84% positive). The levels of Salmonella determined by a three-tube most-probable-number (MPN) method were 8.5+/-1.3 MPN/100 g. In a subsequent study, raw almonds that arrived at almond processors were sampled from 2001 through 2005 to determine the overall prevalence and levels of Salmonella and to characterize the Salmonella isolates obtained. Aerobic plate counts, coliform counts, and MPN levels of Escherichia coli were also determined on positive samples. An isolation frequency for Salmonella of 81 (0.87%+/-0.2%) of 9,274 samples tested (100 g) was determined for raw almonds sampled from throughout California over the 5-year period. Salmonella was not isolated upon retesting in 59 of 65 positive samples. When detected, levels were 1.2 to 2.9 MPN/100 g. Of the 81 total isolates, 35 different serotypes of Salmonella were represented. Aerobic plate counts, coliform counts, and E. coli levels did not correlate with the presence of Salmonella.     

Thermal inactivation D- and z-values of Salmonella serotypes and listeria innocua in chicken patties, chicken tenders, franks, beef patties, and blended beef and turkey patties.

Commercially formulated meat products, including chicken patties, chicken tenders, franks, beef patties, and blended beef and turkey patties, were obtained from processors. Each product was inoculated with 7 to 8 logs of Salmonella (Senftenberg, Typhimurium, Heidelberg, Mission, Montevideo, and California) or Listeria innocua. The inoculated meat samples were heat treated at 55 to 70 degrees C. At each temperature, the decimal reduction time (D) was obtained by linear regression of survival curves. Values of D and the temperature difference required for the thermal inactivation curve to drop a logarithmic cycle (z) were determined for the Salmonella serotypes and L. innocua in each product. At 55 to 70 degrees C. for the five tested products, the D-values for the Salmonella serotypes and L. innocua were 26.97 to 0.25 min and 191.94 to 0.18 min, respectively, and their z-values were 7.60 to 9.83 degrees C and 4.86 to 8.67 degrees C, respectively. Significant differences were found for the D- and z-values among the five products. This study will better enable processors to determine the process lethality of pathogens in commercial meat products.     

Persistence and growth of different Salmonella serovars on pre- and postharvest tomatoes

The interaction of a range of Salmonella serovars with pre- and postharvest tomatoes was evaluated. Serovars were selected on the basis of previous association in tomato-linked outbreaks of salmonellosis (Salmonella Javiana, Salmonella Montevideo, and Salmonella Newport) or those typically isolated from animal or clinical infections (Salmonella Dublin, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Hadar, Salmonella Infantis, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Salmonella Senftenberg). Salmonella serovars introduced onto the flowers of growing plants were recovered on and within the developing tomato fruit. Of all the Salmonella serovars tested, Montevideo appeared to be more adapted to survival within tomatoes and was recovered from 90% of the fruit screened. All of the Salmonella serovars could persist and grow when introduced onto unripened (green) tomato fruit. In general, growth (internal and external) was promoted at the high incubation temperature (25 degrees C) and high relative humidity (95%), although this was serovar dependent. The growth and persistence of Salmonella introduced on and into ripened (red) tomatoes was serovar dependent. Salmonella serovars Enteritidis, Typhimurium, and Dublin were less adapted to grow in or on intact red tomatoes than were serovars Hadar, Montevideo, or Newport. The results illustrated that a diverse range of Salmonella serovars can become established within and/or on preharvest tomatoes. The majority of Salmonella can grow and become established both on and within unripened tomatoes, but growth on ripened fruit was serovar dependent. The results provide a possible explanation why only a narrow range of Salmonella serovars are associated with foodborne illness outbreaks linked to tomatoes.     

Effect of precooking and polyphosphate treatment on the quality of catfish fillets cooked in pouch in boiling water

Cooking or reheating food in a vacuum‐sealed bag has been a common method of preparing vegetables, meats and poultry products. However, there are very few examples of vacuum‐sealed bags designed for cooking catfish fillets. The objective was to examine properties of raw frozen and precooked frozen catfish fillets that were cooked in a vacuum‐sealed pouch in boiling water. The effect of a commercial polyphosphate blend (IQF) on product properties was also evaluated. Sample analyses included weight loss, proximate content, colour (CIE L*a*b*), pH, mechanical texture and lipid peroxidation (TBARS) measurements. Both raw frozen and precooked frozen IQF fillets showed a significantly lower per cent moisture loss after cooking, of less than 2.7% relative to the fillets without polyphosphate (6.2–7.4%). Colour analysis showed a significantly higher b*(C) (yellowness) value for fillets without polyphosphate. Similar texture properties were observed between cooking treatments, with a harder texture (~1.3–1.7 times) determined for fillets without polyphosphate.     

Implication of milk and milk products in food-borne diseases in France and in different industrialised countries

A study was carried out to estimate the proportion of diseases due to milk and milk products among food-borne diseases recorded in France and in other countries since 1980. Particular attention was given to whether the milk involved was heat-treated or not. Four etiologic agents were considered: Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and pathogenic Escherichia coli. An overview of food-borne disease annual reports from seven countries indicated that milk and milk products were implicated in 1-5% of the total bacterial outbreaks; however, details about the type of product and milk involved were usually not provided. When considering 60 outbreaks and four single cases described in the literature and implicating milk and milk products, confirmed or suspected food vehicles were distributed as follows: milk, 39.1%, cheese, 53.1%, other milk products, 7.8%. Overall, 32.8% of the food vehicles were made from pasteurised milk; 37.5% from raw milk; 10.9% from milk stated as "unpasteurised"; and 18.8% from unspecified milk. Salmonella spp. were responsible for 29 outbreaks, L. monocytogenes for 10 outbreaks and four well-documented single cases, pathogenic E. coli for 11 outbreaks, and S. aureus for 10 outbreaks. Analysis of unpublished data about food-borne disease outbreaks, listeriosis excluded, collected by the coordinator of the French surveillance system from 1992 to 1997, revealed 69 documented outbreaks for which milk and milk products were confirmed as the vehicle by the isolation of the etiologic agent. The food vehicles were distributed as follows: milk, 10%; cheese, 87%; others, 3%. UHT milk accounted for 1.5%, raw milk and raw milk products for 48%, and milk and milk products from unspecified milk for 50.5% of the 69 outbreaks. S. aureus was by far the most frequent pathogen associated with these outbreaks (85.5% of the outbreaks), followed by Salmonella (10.1%). This study demonstrates the limitations of the surveillance systems and the difficulties in estimating the contribution of milk and milk products to food-borne diseases. In particular, it was not possible to find out in many outbreaks what heat treatment, if any, the milk had undergone.