Client-initiated homework in client-centered therapy.

This article explains the way homework is integrated into client-centered therapy (sometimes called person-centered therapy). It first presents a summary of the theory based on Carl R. Rogers' therapeutic conditions (congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding), emphasizing the importance of the nondirective attitude. It describes Rogers' change theory based on unconditional positive regard and illustrates the therapeutic interaction process with segments of a typical session conducted by Rogers. Homework is then described and explained as almost always initiated by the client, with therapists' responses that range from pure empathic following to occasionally providing suggestions and instructions. The results of a small survey of nondirective client-centered therapists concerning homework are summarized, and several client/therapist interactions relating to homework are described. Homework in client-centered therapy, when it does occur, is an outcome of clients' initiatives and is consistent with the way the therapy fosters and protects clients' autonomy, self-determination and their sense of self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapist interpersonal skills: Process, outcome, methodological considerations, and recommendations for future research.

Reviews psychotherapeutic outcomes as they are related to such therapist interpersonal skills as empathy, regard, and genuineness. Professional and paraprofessional training programs that have grown out of the client-centered framework are also discussed. In addition, empirical research concerning confounding variables and the methodological shortcomings of this research domain are reviewed. Conclusions include (a) the idea that Rogerian hypotheses have been only modestly supported, and (b) that the lack of support is due both to the difficulties encountered in sampling and rating therapy sessions and to the failure of client-centered theory to specify more precisely the times when specific conditions (such as empathy) might be most facilitative. It is noted that judges' ratings of audiotape recordings of counseling have not provided better predictions of positive therapeutic outcome than have client perception measures of the counseling process. It is concluded that the efficacy of popular interpersonal skills training models has not been demonstrated. It is recommended that in addition to multiple criterion measures, researchers apply multiple process measures to assess the nature of the therapeutic relationship in outcome studies. (2? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heinz Kohut and Carl Rogers: Toward a constructive collaboration.

Examines similarities and differences in the work of H. Kohut (published 1971–1984) and C. Rogers (published 1951–1987) in relation to therapeutic practice. Rogers' contributions may enhance the effectiveness of Kohut's self psychology by freeing it from the orthodoxy of classical psychoanalysis with a focus on the therapeutic qualities of the therapist. Alternatively, Kohut's work can help client-centered therapists (1) discover that clients are often developmentally arrested, (2) use the transference concept to go beyond clients' present experiences, (3) understand clients' idealization of the therapist as an expression of a developmental need, and (4) better understand clients' behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of client-centered group play therapy on self concept.

V. M. Axline's (1969) basic principles for client-centered play therapists direct the therapist to create an environment in which clients are granted the basic freedoms that V. Satir (1976) has delineated as necessary for self concept enhancement. This relationship between client-centered play therapy and self concept enhancement is evident when comparing their histories. This study investigated the effects of client-centered play therapy on self concept in a 10 session client-centered play therapy group involving 3 male and 3 female 6-9 yr olds with a variety of clinical problems. Two individual case studies from the group are presented which indicate that client-centered group play therapy enhances self concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group play therapy with junior high school students.

Suggests that client-centered play therapy is a beneficial therapeutic approach for troubled junior high school students. However, in order to successfully implement this approach, the play activities unique to junior high students need to be recognized and accepted for what they are. An approach to in-school counseling similar to client-centered group play therapy, as described by M. DeMaria and S. Cowden (1992), is presented. "Play" in this context does not necessarily refer to activities that adults usually define as play, instead play will refer to activities that early teenagers engage in with each other. These activities (e.g., make-up and trashing) and their value to the children are described and interpreted. It is noted that the activities possess a social form which the youngsters define as meaningful and fun. The difficulties inherent in utilizing this approach with this volatile population are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What has psychotherapy inherited from Carl Rogers?

Rogers' classic article (see record 2007-14639-002) on the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic change--now 50 years old--has made an indelible impact on the field. In his brief article, Rogers broke with the past, making a compelling case for the importance of subjecting our hypotheses about how therapy works to empirical test. Moreover, his emphasis on the importance of the therapy relationship is now routinely accepted as necessary, even if not sufficient for change to occur. Having moved beyond Rogers' necessary and sufficient conditions, the field of therapy now recognizes that as important as the therapy relationship might be, there are certain clinical problems that require the use of specific techniques to bring about change. Still, it is currently recognized that therapist acceptance is essential, that nondirective methods can be effective in improving client motivation, and perhaps most important, that the therapist needs to work toward the development of evidence-based interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Current Status of Carl Rogers and the Person-Centered Approach.

This investigation of Carl Rogers's work explores the current status of the client-centered/person-centered approach within the United States and internationally. The status is revealed 1st by the volume of person-centered literature that has been published since Rogers's death in 1987. The prevalence of Rogers's work is also measured in the number of professional organizations, institutes, and journals dedicated to the person-centered approach. Finally, recent research on therapy outcomes, common factors, the working alliance, and therapeutic relationships has validated 2 or 3 of Rogers's core conditions--empathy, unconditional positive regard, and, possibly, congruence--as being critical components of effective psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive regard.

This article reviews the research on the association between therapists' provision of positive regard and therapeutic outcome. Rogers' attempts to define the concept of positive regard are noted and two examples of positive regard are presented. A new meta-analysis, focusing on 18 studies, yielded an aggregate effect size of .27 (CI = .16, .38; p k = 18; N = 1067), indicating that positive regard has a moderate association with psychotherapy outcomes; like many other relational factors, it is a significant but not exhaustive part of the process-outcome equation. Therapists' provision of positive regard is strongly indicated in practice; at a minimum, it provides the basis for other mutative interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some implications of psychotherapy research for therapeutic practice.

Implications for practice and research are drawn from a survey of psychotherapy research findings, condensed into 6 broad conclusions: (1) psychotherapy causes clients to become better or worse adjusted than controls; (2) control Ss improve with time as a result of informal therapeutic encounters; (3) therapeutic progress varies with therapist warmth, empathy, adjustment, and experience; (4) client-centered therapy is the only interview-oriented method that has been validated by research; (5) traditional therapies are seriously limited in effectiveness and are relevant for a small minority of disturbances; and (6) behavior therapies have considerable promise for enhancing therapeutic effectiveness and should be utilized or experimented with more widely. (2 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

My personal reactions to Rogers (1957): The facilitative but neither necessary nor sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change.

In this brief commentary regarding Rogers' (1957) paper (see record 2007-14639-002), I comment on Rogers' statement about personality change, the six conditions, and the resulting hypotheses. I conclude that the construct of therapeutic personality change needs to be reformulated to include interpersonal changes, and that the six conditions can facilitate therapeutic personality change, but are neither necessary nor sufficient for therapeutic personality change. I also suggest that several components from current common factors models (e.g., building expectations of change, encouraging corrective experiences) and a consideration of boundaries need to be included into a reformulation of Rogers' propositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classical person-centered and experiential perspectives on Rogers (1957).

Rogers (1957; see record 2007-14639-002) foreshadows the later development of the person-centered approach in North America and elsewhere. In this paper, the authors present contrasting perspectives on the legacy of this key paper. First, from the perspective of classical person-centered therapy, Freire describes the context for this key paper within the wider frame of Rogers' body of work and emphasizes its continuing importance and relevance. Second, Elliott offers a personal history from the point of view of a psychotherapy researcher and process-experiential therapist. These two perspectives represent two major and distinct views of Rogers' legacy from within his direct intellectual and therapeutic descendents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The intersubjective perspective and the client-centered approach: Are they one at their core?

Reviews the change from a 1-person to a 2-person psychology in psychoanalysis. In particular, R. D. Stolorow's (1994) intersubjectivity theory is presented and then contrasted with the client-centered approach to therapy. It is concluded that contemporary client-centered therapy is a 2-person psychology, and that well-trained client-centered therapists do reflect on their own subjectivity and how it influences the client. With their important similarities it seems that the client-centered and self psychology approaches to therapy are one at their core. Self psychology has more elaborate theorizing about the therapy process, while the client-centered approach is interested in applying its principles outside of therapy so that people can live more constructively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reassessing Rogers' necessary and sufficient conditions of change.

This article reviews the impact of Carl Rogers' postulate about the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic change on the field of psychotherapy. It is proposed that his article (see record 2007-14630-002) made an impact in two ways; first, by acting as a spur to researchers to identify the active ingredients of therapeutic change; and, second, by providing guidelines for therapeutic practice. The role of the necessary and sufficient conditions in process-experiential therapy, an emotion-focused therapy for individuals, and their limitations in terms of research and practice are discussed. It is proposed that although the conditions are necessary and important in promoting clients' affect regulation, they do not take sufficient account of other moderating variables that affect clients' response to treatment and may need to be balanced with more structured interventions. Notwithstanding, Rogers highlighted a way of interacting with clients that is generally acknowledged as essential to effective psychotherapy practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathy, genuineness--And the dynamics of power: A feminist responds to Rogers.

In this article, I discuss the points of convergence and divergence between Carl Rogers' core constructs for therapy (Rogers, 1957; see record 2007-14639-002) and the theories and practices of feminist therapy (Brown, 1994, 2007). The value of Rogers' insights about the importance of the relationship in therapy is reviewed, and the lacunae in his model arising from an inattention to issues of power and politics is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Video-tape role induction for psychotherapy: Moving forward.

Role induction (RI) has been shown to decrease premature termination and to enhance the therapeutic alliance and symptom relief. We examine the effects of a video-tape RI on premature termination rates, outcome, and the process variable of therapeutic alliance. Sixty-eight clients and their therapists (N = 26) participated in the study. Each client completed baseline measures of symptom status before beginning the therapy. Clients were then randomly assigned to either a video-tape RI condition or a no videotape treatment-as-usual condition. After the first session of therapy, clients and therapists separately completed outcome and alliance measures. Providing a video-tape RI to clients as they entered therapy did not lead to better results in attendance, outcome, or process variables. Considering possibilities that lie beyond the design of this study, so as to understand these results, is encouraged in an effort to advance the field's thinking about RI and how it can best be harnessed for continued positive effects moving forward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Healing through art: The self-portrait technique.

Describes the historical use and interpretation of art in child therapy. A case study with a 6-yr-old boy examines the use of the self-portrait technique in the process of healing. The case study, including self-portraits and accompanying narratives, demonstrates that positive change in self-concept occurs over time within a therapeutic, client-centered environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modality, self-disclosure, and gender as determinants of psychotherapeutic attraction.

Investigated the effects of therapy modality, self-disclosure tendency, and gender of Ss on therapeutic attraction. 80 undergraduates—40 high and 40 low scorers on a modified version of the Self-Disclosure Questionnaire—were asked to rate audiotapes of simulated therapy sessions on several dimensions. Primary results are as follows: (a) High self-disclosers preferred client-centered therapy, whereas low self-disclosers preferred systematic desensitization. (b) Client-centered therapy was perceived as providing a greater opportunity for self-exploration, whereas systematic desensitization was perceived as more effective. (c) Low self-disclosing males and high self-disclosing females rated the therapists as attractive but ineffective. (d) Females were more attracted to systematic desensitization, whereas males were more attracted to client-centered therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenia and therapist involvement: Changing the practice of four major psychotherapies.

Describes how therapy experience with schizophrenic patients has impacted on 4 therapeutic approaches—existential psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, client-centered psychotherapy, and family therapy. It is suggested that such experience has led to similar therapist-centered modifications in each of the 4 psychotherapies and that a cross-relevancy between the treatment of schizophrenia and all other psychological disorders has emerged. Aspects of therapy considered include the interpersonal nature of the analytic situation, the communication of empathy, and intervention with dysfunctional family systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)