Analysis of shear stress distribution in pushout process of fiber-reinforced ceramics

The interfacial shear stress distribution of a thin specimen of SiC fiber-reinforced glass matrix composite (fiber volume fraction of 0.1, 0.5 and 0.7) during a fiber pushout process was subjected to finite element analysis using a three concentric axisymmetrical model which consisted of fiber, matrix, and composite. A stress criterion was used to determine interface debonding. Effects of thermally-induced stress and a post debond sliding process at the interface were also included in the analysis. The analytical result showed that shear stress near the specimen surface was introduced during the specimen preparation process. Before the interfacial debonding, the distribution of shear stress during the pushout test was affected by the existence of thermally-induced stress in the specimen. The interfacial shear debonding initiated ≈ 30 μm below the pushing surface and the sliding at the debonded interface proceeded in the direction of both the pushing surface and back surface from the peak shear position; the debonding from the back surface initiated just before the complete debonding of the interface. The pushout load-displacement curve near the origin was straight, however, after the existence of interface sliding at the debonded interface, the curve exhibited non-linearity with the increase in applied load up to the complete debonding at the interface. This debonding process was essentially independent of the fiber volume fraction. The results indicate that the total of thermally-induced stress in the specimen and shear stress distribution generated by applied load are important for the initiation of debonding and the frictional sliding process of the thin specimen pushout test.     

Mechanical Behavior of CFRP Rod Anchors under Tensile Loading

This paper presents the results of an experimental and numerical study to examine the mechanical behavior of carbon fiber reinforced polymer rods gripped by a wedge anchor, comprised of an aluminum sleeve, four stainless steel wedges, and a stainless steel barrel. The carbon fiber reinforced polymer rod-anchor system was tested under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. In the static load tests, the effect of presetting loads, usage history, and sleeve material were investigated. Presetting load levels of 50, 65, 80, and 100 kN were used, and tests were conducted with new and reused anchors. Aluminum and copper sleeves were considered. As the presetting load increased, the displacement (or slip) of the rod and sleeve decreased. No significant effect of reusing the anchor was found other than replacing the sleeve. Anchors with copper sleeves performed poorly at low presetting loads, in comparison to aluminum sleeves. Cyclic load tests were conducted on anchors using aluminum sleeves with a presetting load of 80 kN. The effects of cycling on the rod and sleeve displacement were minor for different mean stresses and stress ratios. A finite-element model, consisting of three contact surfaces, was applied to simulate the anchor components; the displacement of the rod compared well with experimental results.     

The use of single fibre pushout testing to explore interfacial mechanics in SiC monofilament-reinforced Ti—I. A photoelastic study of the test

The frozen stress photoelastic technique has been used to investigate the elastic stress distribution during single fibre pushout testing. It is shown that the axial distributions of interfacial shear stress and axial stress in the fibre are broadly consistent with the Hseuh model, based on shear lag analysis. However, the experimental shear stress distribution is more uniform than that predicted, particularly for low aspect ratio fibres, so that interfacial shear debonding strength value obtained from debonding loads on the basis of the model may be overestimates. Estimates based on a uniform shear stress along the fibre length may be preferable, particularly for low aspect ratio fibres.     

Moiré Interferometry Analysis of Fiber Debonding

Progressive fiber debonding in steel fiber∕cementitious matrix composites has been studied using a single fiber pullout test that permits simultaneous measurements of the load versus crack opening displacement relationship and Moiré interferometry fringe patterns. Analysis of Moiré interferometry patterns allows the fiber axial and interfacial shear stresses to be calculated along the entire fiber length. The interfacial shear stress distribution along the debonded length of the fiber indicates a steep decrease in shear stress with interfacial slip, from 6 to 1 MPa for 7 μm of fiber slip and a crack opening displacement of 22 μm. These results suggest that improvements in the toughness of cement-based composites could be achieved by developing materials in which the decrease in shear stress is less severe.     

Energy-Based Modeling Approach for Debonding of FRP Plate from Concrete Substrate

For concrete beams and slabs strengthened with bonded fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) plates, plate debonding from the concrete substrate is a common failure mode. In this paper, the debonding process is modeled as the propagation of a crack along the concrete/adhesive interface, with frictional shear stress acting behind the crack tip. Crack propagation is taken to occur when the net energy release of the system equals the interfacial fracture energy. The analysis is first performed for the special case with constant shear stress along the debonded interface, and then for the general case with slip softening in the debonded zone. From the results, a direct correspondence between energy-based and strength-based analyses can be established for arbitrary softening behavior along the interface. Specifically, through the proper definition of an effective interfacial shear strength, the conventional strength-based approach can be employed to give the same results as the much more complicated energy-based analysis. Also, based on the relation between the effective shear strength and other material parameters, it is possible to explain the very high interfacial shear stresses observed in experimental measurements. As an application example, distribution of plate stress and interfacial shear stress for the linear softening case is derived. The model results are found to be in good agreement with experimental measurements, showing that the simple linear softening model can describe the debonding process in real material systems.     

Analysis of interfacial shear strength of SiC fiber reinforced 7075 aluminum composite by pushout microindentation

The interfacial shear strength of continuous silicon carbide fiber reinforced 7075 aluminum matrix composite (SiC_f/7075Al) has been investigated in this research by pushout microindentation. The SiC_f/7075Al composite specimens were processed by diffusion bonding alternate layers of SiC fibers and 7075Al alloy plates. From the measured stress-displacement curves of indentation tests, the interfacial shear strengths of the composite specimens were obtained, and the stress-displacement curves were basically divided into two regions: (1) elastic deformation and (2) interface decohesion and fiber sliding. With increasing aging time, the interfacial shear strength of the composite increased to 167 MPa for T6-treated specimens, and the variation of the interfacial shear strength well followed that of the ultimate tensile strength of 7075Al matrix alloy. With decreasing specimen thickness, the interfacial shear strength of the composite and the amplitude of stress fluctuation slightly decreased because of the stress relaxation effect near specimen surfaces. Under higher indentation velocities, both the interfacial shear strength and the amplitude of stress fluctuation became smaller.     

The effect of temperature, matrix alloying and substrate coatings on wettability and shear strength of Al/Al2O3 couples

A fresh approach has been advanced to examine in the Al/Al₂O₃ system the effects of temperature, alloying of Al with Ti or Sn, and Ti and Sn coatings on the substrate, on contact angles measured using a sessile-drop test, and on interface strength measured using a modified push-off test that allows shearing of solidified droplets with less than 90 deg contact angle. In the modified test, the solidified sessile-drop samples are bisected perpendicular to the drop/Al₂O₃ interface at the midplane of the contact circle to obtain samples that permit bond strength measurement by stress application to the flat surface of the bisected couple. The test results show that interface strength is strongly influenced by the wetting properties; low contact angles correspond to high interface strength, which also exhibits a strong temperature dependence. An increase in the wettability test temperature led to an increase in the interface strength in the low-temperature range where contact angles were large and wettability was poor. The room-temperature shear tests conducted on thermally cycled sessile-drop test specimens revealed the effect of chemically formed interfacial oxides; a weakening of the thermally cycled Al/Al₂O₃ interface was caused under the following conditions: (1) slow contact heating and short contact times in the wettability test, and (2) fast contact heating and longer contact times. The addition of 6 wt pct Ti or 7 wt pct Sn to Al only marginally influenced the contact angle and interfacial shear strength. However, Al₂O₃ substrates having thin (<1 μm) Ti coatings yielded relatively low contact angles and high bond strength, which appears to be related to the dissolution of the coating in Al and formation of a favorable interface structure.     

Numerical Investigation into Secondary Currents and Wall Shear in Trapezoidal Channels

This paper presents the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to determine the distribution of the bed and sidewall shear stresses in trapezoidal channels. The impact of the variation of the slant angle of the side walls, aspect ratio, and composite roughness on the shear stress distribution is analyzed. The shear stress data can be directly output from the CFD models at the boundaries, but they can also be derived using the Guo and Julien equations for the average bed and side wall shear stresses. These equations compute the shear stress as a function of three components; gravitational, secondary flows, and interfacial shear stress, and are hence used to gauge the respective merits of the different components of wall shear. The results show a significant contribution from the secondary currents and internal shear stresses on the overall shear stress at the boundaries. This work also extends previous work of the authors on rectangular channels.     

Determination of Nonlinear Softening Behavior at FRP Composite/Concrete Interface

For concrete beams and slabs, the bonding of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) plates to the bottom surface is an effective and efficient technique for flexural strengthening. Failure of strengthened members often occurs due to stress concentrations at the FRP/concrete interface. For debonding failure initiated at the bottom of shear or shear/flexural cracks in the concrete, experimental results clearly indicate a progressive failure process accompanied by gradual reduction in shear transfer capability at the interface. Several existing models for FRP debonding have taken interfacial shear softening into account. However, the assumed shear stress versus slip relations employed in the models have never been properly measured. In this investigation, a combined experimental/theoretical approach for the extraction of interfacial stress versus slip relation is developed. With loading applied to a bonded FRP plate, strain is measured at various points along its length. Based on the strain measurements, the interfacial softening curve is derived from a finite element analysis. The present paper will present the proposed approach in detail, demonstrate its application to typical experimental data, and discuss the implications of the results.     

Fluid shear stress induces actin polymerization in human neutrophils

We have previously reported that a physiological range of shear stress induces neutrophil homotypic aggregation mediated by lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-3 (ICAM-3) interactions. To further characterized the homotypic aggregation, actin polymerization was investigated in neutrophils stimulated by shear stress in comparison with formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP). In fMLP-stimulated neutrophils, actin polymerization was localized in the pseudopods, and this reaction was not mediated by a cytosolic level of Ca2+. In contrast to fMLP stimulation, the actin polymerization induced by shear stress in a cone-plate viscometer was localized in cell-cell contact regions, and this polymerization required the increase of intracellular Ca2+. This shear stress-induced actin polymerization was not observed when neutrophils were pretreated with anti-LFA-1 or anti-ICAM-3 antibody. In conclusion, LFA-1 and ICAM-3 interaction mediated by the increase of [Ca2+]i generated the intercellular signal in order to accumulate F-actin in the cell-cell contact regions.     

Estimation of interfacial shear strength between superconducting oxides and silver sheath from multiple- fracture phenomenon of the oxide

The influences of interfacial shear strength between superconducting Y-Ba-Cu-O and silver and that between Bi-Pb-Sr-Ca-Cu-O and silver on the multiple fracture of the oxides embedded in silver-sheathed composite wires, prepared by a powder-in-tube method, on the multiple fracture of the oxides was analyzed. The stress distribution in the oxide was calculated based on the proposed method, and the multiple-fracture phenomenon was simulated by means of a Monte Carlo simulation method. From the comparison of the experimental results with those obtained by the simulation, the interfacial shear strength between Y-Ba-Cu-O and silver and that between Bi-Pb-Sr-Ca-Cu-O and silver were estimated to be nearly 30 and 40 MPa, respectively.     

Stress Transfer and Fracture Propagation in Different Kinds of Adhesive Joints

To effectively and efficiently utilize fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) laminates (plates or sheets) in strengthening civil infrastructures, a design strategy integrating the properties of FRP reinforcement and composite structural behavior needs to be adopted. The interfacial stress transfer behavior including debonding should be considered to be one of the most important effects on the composite structural behavior. In this paper, two kinds of nonlinear interfacial constitutive laws describing the pre- and postinterfacial microdebonding behavior are introduced to solve the nonlinear interfacial stress transfer and fracture propagation problems for different kinds of adhesive joints in FRP/steel-strengthened concrete or steel structures. Expressions for the maximum transferable load, interfacial shear stress distribution, and initiation and propagation of interfacial cracks (debonding) are derived analytically. In addition, numerical simulations are performed to discuss the factors influencing the interfacial behavior and the theoretical derivations are validated by finite-element analysis.     

Analytical Solution for Fracture Analysis of CFRP Sheet–Strengthened Cracked Concrete Beams

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials have been widely used in the field of retrofitting. Theoretical analysis of FRP plate- or sheet-strengthened cracked concrete beams is necessary for estimating service reliability of the structural members. In previous studies, the effect of a perfectly bonded FRP plate or sheet was equivalent to a cohesive force acting at the bottom of crack to delay the crack propagation in concrete and reduce the crack width. However, delamination between FRP and cracked beam is inevitable due to interfacial shear stress concentration at the bottom of crack. The intention of this paper is to present an analytical solution for fracture analysis of carbon FRP (CFRP) sheet–strengthened cracked concrete beams by considering both vertical crack propagation in concrete and interfacial debonding at CFRP-concrete interface. The interfacial debonding is modeled as the interfacial shear crack propagation in this paper. Four different stages are discussed after initial cracking state of the concrete. At the first stage, only fictitious crack propagation occurs in the concrete. At the second stage, macrocrack propagates in the concrete without interfacial debonding. At the third stage, both vertical macrocrack propagation in the concrete and horizontal shear crack propagation at the CFRP-concrete interface occur in the strengthened beam. The tensile stress in the CFRP sheet and interfacial shear stress along the span are formulated based on the deformation compatibility condition at the CFRP-concrete interface at this stage. Finally, macroshear crack propagates at the interface until the CFRP sheet is completely peeled out from the beam, and then the member is fractured. The applied load is determined as a function of the referred two crack lengths at different stages. At the beginning, the applied load increases to one peak value with the full propagation of fictitious crack at the first stage. At the third stage, the applied load is improved to another peak value due to the relatively high cohesive effect of the CFRP sheet. Then the two peak values are determined by the Lagrange multiplier method. The validity of the proposed analytical solution is verified with the experimental results and numerical simulations. It can be concluded that the proposed analytical solution can predict the load-bearing capacity of CFRP sheet-strengthened cracked concrete beams with reasonable accuracy.     

Stress Analysis of Monolithic Circular Arches Strengthened with Composite Materials

This paper presents an analytical approach for the elastic stress analysis of monolithic circular arches strengthened with externally bonded fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) strips. Emphasis is placed on the interfacial stresses between the existing structure and the supplemental reinforcement layers. Two analytical models are presented: The first model formulates the governing equations in terms of the displacements in the arch and the FRP strip and the tangential distribution of the shear stresses in the adhesive layer as unknowns without involving any assumptions on the stress and displacement fields in the adhesive layer. The second model uses the functional form of the displacement field derived in the first model yielding a formulation in terms of displacement unknowns only. Two numerical examples that examine the capabilities of the analytical approach are discussed. The first example focuses on the stress analysis of a strengthened arch under a localized load. The second example studies the elastic response of a partially strengthened arch to a symmetric load and a horizontal support settlement. The numerical study quantifies the interfacial shear and peeling stresses between the old and the new components underlining the stress concentrations. Finally, conclusions are presented and directions for future research on the application of the theory to masonry arches are outlined.     

Cavity formation from inclusions in ductile fracture

The previously proposed conditions for cavity formation from equiaxed inclusions in ductile fracture have been examined. Critical local elastic energy conditions are found to be necessary but not sufficient for cavity formation. The interfacial strength must also be reached on part of the boundary. For inclusions larger than about 100? the energy condition is always satisfied when the interfacial strength is reached and cavities form by a critical interfacial stress condition. For smaller cavities the stored elastic energy is insufficient to open up interfacial cavities spontaneously. Approximate continuum analyses for extreme idealizations of matrix behavior furnish relatively close limits for the interfacial stress concentration for strain hardening matrices flowing around rigid non-yielding equiaxed inclusions. Such analyses give that in pure shear loading the maximum interfacial stress is very nearly equal to the equivalent flow stress in tension for the given state of plastic strain. Previously proposed models based on a local dissipation of deformation incompatibilities by the punching of dislocation loops lead to rather similar results for interfacial stress concentration when local plastic relaxation is allowed inside the loops. At very small volume fractions of second phase the inclusions do not interact for very substantial amounts of plastic strain. In this regime the interfacial stress is independent of inclusion size. At larger volume fractions of second phase, inclusions begin to interact after moderate amounts of plastic strain, and the interfacial stress concentration becomes dependent on second phase volume fraction. Some of the many reported instances of inclusion size effect in cavity formation can thus be satisfactorily explained by variations of volume fraction of second phase from point to point. This work has been presented in part orally at the Third International Conference on Fracture in Munich, Germany April 1973.     

Influence of fabrication technique on the fiber pushout behavior in a sapphire-reinforced NiAl matrix composite

Directional solidification (DS) of “powder-cloth” (PC) processed sapphire-NiAl composites was carried out to examine the influence of fabrication technique on the fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength, measured using a fiber-pushout technique. The DS process replaced the fine, equiaxed NiAl grain structure of the PC composites with an oriented grain structure comprised of large columnar NiAl grains aligned parallel to the fiber axis, with fibers either completely engulfed within the NiAl grains or anchored at one to three grain boundaries. The load-displacement behavior during the pushout test exhibited an initial “pseudoelastic” response, followed by an “inelastic” response, and finally a “frictional” sliding response. The fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength and the fracture behavior during fiber pushout were investigated using an interrupted pushout test and fractography, as functions of specimen thickness (240 to 730 μm) and fabrication technique. The composites fabricated using the PC and the DS techniques had different matrix and interface structures and appreciably different interfacial shear strengths. In the DS composites, where the fiber-matrix interfaces were identical for all the fibers, the interfacial debond shear stresses were larger for the fibers embedded completely within the NiAl grains and smaller for the fibers anchored at a few grain boundaries. The matrix grain boundaries coincident on sapphire fibers were observed to be the preferred sites for crack formation and propagation. While the frictional sliding stress appeared to be independent of the fabrication technique, the interfacial debond shear stresses were larger for the DS composites compared to the PC composites. The study highlights the potential of the DS technique to grow single-crystal NiAl matrix composites reinforced with sapphire fibers, with fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength appreciably greater than that attainable by the current solid-state fabrication techniques.     

Influence of interfacial reactions on the fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength in sapphire fiber-reinforced Nial(Yb) composites

The influence of microstructure of the fiber-matrix interface on the interfacial shear strength, measured using a fiber-pushout technique, has been examined in a sapphire-fiber-reinforced NiAl(Yb) matrix composite under the following conditions: (1) as-fabricated powder metallurgy (PM) composites, (2) PM composites after solid-state heat treatment (HT), and (3) PM com-posites after directional solidification (DS). The fiber-pushout stress-displacement behavior con-sisted of an initial “pseudoelastic” region, wherein the stress increased linearly with displacement, followed by an “inelastic” region, where the slope of the stress-displacement plot decreased until a maximum stress was reached, and the subsequent gradual stress decreased to a “fric-tional” stress. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray analyses showed that the inter-facial region in the PM NiAl(Yb) composites was comprised of Yb₂O₃,O-rich NiAl and some spinel oxide (Yb₃Al₅O₁₂), whereas the interfacial region in the HT and DS composites was comprised mainly of Yb₃Al₅O₁₂. A reaction mechanism has been proposed to explain the pres-ence of interfacial species observed in the sapphire-NiAl(Yb) composite. The extent of inter-facial chemical reactions and severity of fiber surface degradation increased progressively in this order: PM < HT < DS. Chemical interactions between the fiber and the NiAl(Yb) matrix resulted in chemical bonding and higher interfacial shear strength compared to sapphire-NiAl composites without Yb. Unlike the sapphire-NiAl system, the frictional shear stress in the sap-phire-NiAl(Yb) composites was strongly dependent on the processing conditions. Formerly Research Associate, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cleveland State University     

Influence of Cr and W alloying on the fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength in cast and directionally solidified sapphire nial composites

Sapphire-reinforced NiAl matrix composites with chromium or tungsten as alloying additions were synthesized using casting and zone directional solidification (DS) techniques and characterized by a fiber pushout test as well as by microhardness measurements. The sapphire-NiAl(Cr) specimens exhibited an interlayer of Cr rich eutectic at the fiber-matrix interface and a higher interfacial shear strength compared to unalloyed sapphire-NiAl specimens processed under identical conditions. In contrast, the sapphire-NiAl(W) specimens did not show interfacial excess of tungsten rich phases, although the interfacial shear strength was high and comparable to that of sapphire-NiAl(Cr). The postdebond sliding stress was higher in sapphire-NiAl(Cr) than in sapphire-NiAl(W) due to interface enrichment with chromium particles. The matrix microhardness progressively decreased with increasing distance from the interface in both DS NiAl and NiAl(Cr) specimens. The study highlights the potential of casting and DS techniques to improve the toughness and strength of NiAl by designing dual-phase microstructures in NiAl alloys reinforced with sapphire fibers. R. TIWARI, formerly Research Associate, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cleveland State University     

Evaluation of interfacial shear strength,residual clamping stress and coefficient of friction for fiber-reinforced ceramic composites

The shear strength, the residual clamping stress, the coefficient of friction and the frictional stress at the fiber/matrix interface are evaluated for fiber-reinforced ceramic composites by using the theoretical analysis for fiber push-out and the corresponding experimental results. The shear strength is evaluated from the load at which debonding initiates. Sliding occurs at the interface after complete debonding. For a fiber with a Poisson's ratio greater than zero, the characteristics of the nonlinear relationship between the load required to push out the fiber and the sample thickness enable the residual clamping stress, the coefficient of friction and the interfacial frictional stress to be evaluated in the present analysis.     

Shear force effects on fretting fatigue behavior of Ti-6Al-4V

The present study examined the role of shear force on fretting fatigue behavior as well as its interdependence on other test variables, such as bulk stress, normal load, relative slip, and coefficient of friction, by using a fretting test system where shear force was controlled independent of other applied loads. Two contact geometries were used: cylinder-on-flat and flat-on-flat. For a given applied bulk stress and normal load condition, there is a simple relationship between shear force and relative slip up to a maximum value of shear force where contact condition changes from partial slip to gross slip. The effects of shear force and relative slip therefore can be combined together to characterize fretting behavior such as in a fretting map. Under a prescribed loading condition, fretting fatigue life decreases as shear force increases in partial slip condition. Further, the inter-relationships between shear force and other variables appear to be independent of contact geometry. In the tests where shear force is not applied independently rather when generated indirectly through the compliance of fretting setup, it is affected by the applied bulk stress and normal load, which in turn affect the relative slip range. Therefore, there is a complex interaction among various variables, and it is difficult to isolate their effects on fretting behavior in such test conditions. An independent control of relative slip in the fretting test thus provides an alternate means to characterize the variables’ effects and their interdependence.