Property‐Led Redevelopment in Post‐Reform China: A Case Study of Xintiandi Redevelopment Project in Shanghai

Abstract: Urban redevelopment in China has experienced great transformation. Government‐backed redevelopment has been replaced by privately funded and property‐led redevelopment. This article discerns the impetus of ongoing property‐led redevelopment. A case study of the Xintiandi project in Shanghai reveals how property‐led redevelopment actually works. Pro‐growth coalitions between local government and developers are formed. Despite its role as capital provider, the private sector is still regulated by the government due to its negligible influence on local governance. The government controls the direction and pace of urban redevelopment through policy intervention, financial leverages, and governance of land leasing. Property‐led redevelopment is driven by diverse motivations of different levels of the government, e.g. transforming urban land use functions, showing off the entrepreneurial capability of local government, and maximizing negotiated land benefits. Driven by profit seeking, some thriving urban neighborhoods are displaced by high‐value property development, and suffer from uneven redevelopment.     

A longitudinal study of open space zoning and development in Hong Kong

This study evaluates the land-use zoning and development of open space in the hyper-dense, land-hungry city of Hong Kong. The existing literature has generally found that its open space provision is unsatisfactory in both quality and quantity. The study fills the research gap by undertaking an archive research and interpreting the past zoning data from a total of 1573 statutory town plans published between 1965 and 2006. It elucidates how the current ungenerous provision of public open space can be attributed to a number of historical, political and institutional factors including: inefficient division of government responsibilities, lack of public representation, pro-growth planning ideology, revenue-maximizing land sale policy and privatization of urban space. This study concludes that the development of public open space has been prejudiced under the statutory planning system and land allocation process. It suggests that the shrinking of public open space may cause excessive development density that aggravates the deteriorating urban climate in Hong Kong.     

Public land leasing and the changing roles of local government in urban china

Since late 1980s China's urban land use began to change from administrative allocation to public land leasing. Based on the assumptions of fiscal decentralization and growth of private economy, this paper provides another perspective on public land leasing in addition to the well-known efficiency of market allocation of land resource. My focus is on the endogenous evolution of local public finance due to rent capitalization. Especially, I model a two-sector urban economy and a multi-task local government that allocates its effort to maximize fiscal revenue. The findings indicate that complete wage capitalization under administrative allocation of land contributes to the pressure on local governments to look for alternative revenue source. Public land leasing helps to include private firms into local public finance and re-orient local governments' interest from SOEs to public goods provision. A simple test on the institutional change shows the efficiency of public land leasing relative to the old system. I thank Rena Sivitanidou and Yongheng Deng for their helpful comments on an early version of the paper.     

《拆迁条例》修订与城市更新制度创新初探

传统城市更新主要表现为地方政府主导下的城市土地再开发行为,《城市房屋拆迁管理条例》保证了强制性产权变更更新模式的推行,并因其在公益界定、程序规范和补偿机制方面的缺陷造成城市更新利益分配结构的失衡。在《拆迁条例》修订的背景下,结合城市更新运行机制,探讨城市更新制度创新的基本要点,包括公益限定、程序正义和公平补偿等基本原则。进而指出制度创新的关键在于更新过程中利益的分配与还原,应围绕城市更新政策制定和执行建构一个平等博弈的平台,使得政府、市场和居民等多元主体能够通过多方反复博弈实现利益平衡。     

A tale of two cities: Public land ownership in Canberra and Stockholm to the early 1980s

Public ownership and development of land is a powerful means of controlling the development of an urban area, avoiding high speculative costs of land for housing and public purposes, and siphoning increases in land values that accompany urban growth into the public purse. In Stockholm and Canberra, the balance between these three objectives in the use of public land has differed over time. Control of development has become dominant in Canberra while financial objectives have continued to be important in Stockholm. Whereas public ownership and leasehold tenure of developed land have been used by Stockholm city council as a means of maintaining a public role in the land market following urban development, the Federal Government in Canberra have done this to a much smaller extent. The city of Stockholm has been an active ground landlord; the government in Canberra has been almost completely passive, using lease conditions solely as a means of controlling land use. The paper explores historical reasons for the difference between the two cities. Importantly, both the initiative and financial responsibility were taken locally in Stockholm but by the national government in relation to its national capital, Canberra.     

The birth of ‘land use planning’ in American urban planning

Although the concept of ‘land use planning’ is now firmly enmeshed in American urban planning, its meaning still remains vague. This paper aims to clarify the meaning by examining the historical development of land use planning in the USA. At the beginning of the twentieth century, city planners viewed a city as an organic unit of public facilities. While city planning thereafter provided potential elements of land use planning, such as zoning, zoning surveys and land use classification systems, the idea of land use planning itself was actually derived from rural county planning and was initially utilized in urban county planning as a guide for zoning in the 1930s. After bringing about a change in the way cities were viewed, that is, as a pattern of land use and population density, land use planning was further employed as a guide for urban redevelopment policies in the 1940s, and finally reaching full integration into city planning in the 1950s and 1960s.     

台湾地区都市更新中的容积奖励制度改革研究

城市更新是既有利益格局的再平衡,也是空间增值收益的再分配过程。在内地城市更新中,容积奖励等制度也逐渐成为政府实现公益性政策目标、推动城市更新的重要政策工具。然而,由于制度设计缺陷引发的一系列容积率奖励运作问题值得关注。对我国台湾地区的研究表明,通过刚性与弹性管控相结合、增强奖励标准的确定性、增强奖励制度管控的精细化程度等改革方式,可以在一定程度上弥补制度缺陷,实现容积奖励的真正目标。深圳城市更新中的容积奖励制度与改革前的台湾地区具有相似之处,通过探究台湾地区容积奖励制度改革的运作逻辑,以期对深圳等内地地区城市更新中的容积奖励制度改革提供经验。     

Political economy and urban planning: a comparative study of Hong Kong,Singapore and Taiwan

This study compares urban planning mechanisms that operate within Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. The political economy of Hong Kong is in a state of flux. While the power of the government and the corporate interests remain largely intact, they are challenged by pro-China interests and a democratizing civil society. The land use planning system reflects this power contest. In face of both strong resistance from the development industry and China's eagerness to perpetuate a market-led society in post-1997 Hong Kong, the outcome of the power contest remains uncertain. The state-centred political economy of Singapore has bred a top–down land use planning system centrally controlled by the government. Not only has the government dominated the plan making process, the legislation has entrusted the public sector to scrutinize and guide private development through a discretionary development control system. The government is able to mobilize resources to implement plans with the tacit consent of a regulated and meritocracy-based society. In contrast, Taiwan's multi-layered government structure and its complicated relationships with business interests (`gold-power' alliance) within a cultural milieu with scant respect for rules and regulations, have produced a complex and yet loosely coordinated land use planning system. The Urban Planning Law emphasizes plan making and implementation by the public sector at the district level, but local authorities lack resources to implement plans. The regulatory development control system, to a large extent, is abused by the community and land use zoning is not taken seriously in general. As plan amendments can be made behind closed doors, the `gold-power' alliance has tried to rezone land for speculative purposes. The impact of the recent democratization process on the society's legal attitudes and the roles of planning in urban governance in Taiwan remains to be seen.     

城市制度分析的理论框架

通过总结相关文献,本文提出了一个城市制度分析的理论框架。分析的三个基本维度是基于城市的三个主要特征:城市土地和地方公共品(或集体品)的消费和交易是捆绑在一起的;住房所有者购房后流动性降低;不动产具有耐久性。本文的分析说明城市土地利用的中心问题是胁迫问题,而整合土地所有者和集体品提供者是各种城市组织的一个基本制度结构;私有社区和购物中心代表了不同的整合方式;不动产的耐久性则可能通过市场结构对城市制度的内部形式产生影响。     

The anti-apartment movement in the U.S. and the role of land use regulations in creating housing segregation

In the U.S., typically, poor and minority households are concentrated in central cities, which are ringed by middle class suburbs which contain a majority of the population of the metropolitan area. The resulting segregation is largely the outcome of public policy and institutional arrangements, rather than the excesses of a free market. Land use regulations have played a central role in creating segregation among the types of housing that are affordable to different income groups. Single family only zoning is a central institution in suburban areas; often multifamily housing is limited to a very tiny portion of the land zoned for housing. Land use policies regarding housing are formulated on a municipal level, in which states have only a minimal role and the federal government has no role. Decentralization of revenue sources and fiscal support for local services, including education, provides incentives for local zoning policies which exclude groups which are viewed as more costly to service, while decentralization of zoning powers make these policies possible. This article describes 1) the basic contours of the housing stock and population distribution in metropolitan areas, 2) the evolution of the single family only policy, and 3) recent efforts to counteract housing segregation patterns, which have had little success. Kenneth K. Baar is a attorney in the Berkeley, California and has a Ph.D. in urban planning. From 1991 to 1993, he was a Fulbright professor at the Budapest University of Economic Sciences. In 1994–95 he was visiting professor in the Urban Planning Department at Columbia University in New York City.     

REGULATING SCARCITY: THE EFFECTS OF ZONING ON URBAN LAND MARKET CHANGES

This paper explores the dynamics between zoning, land values and neighborhood change from 1960 to 1970. Using a sample of 352 central city and suburban census tracts contained within the Chicago SMSA, this paper examines the influence of zoning on neighborhood land value appreciation and the independent effects of land values and zoning on neighborhood housing changes. Findings show that zoning influenced land value appreciation over the decade within both central city and suburban areas. Central city zoning and land values operated jointly to influence neighborhood housing changes while in suburban areas, zoning mechanisms overrode market forces in influencing neighborhood development patterns. This paper demonstrates the forcefulness of the politics of the urban land market in regulating both land scarcity and land value changes and in influencing metropolitan spatial distributions.     

从新制度经济学的观点分析产权结构与土地使用制度之关系：私有制、国有制还是其他？

本文利用新制度经济学的交易成本经济学与产权理论,对土地使用制度的交易成本与产权结构进行分析,发现西方的传统以私有制为基础的土地利用模式,其最大问题乃是公共财产与私有财产的产权未能整合,故而产生土地所有者之间权益不均的问题。产权整合并非只有土地国有一条途径。本文讨论以市场机制为基础的产权整合模式下的土地使用制度,并分析其优缺点。最后,针对分析结果,提出在土地使用和城市管理方面可能的运用方向及对中国土地使用制度改革的启示。     

基于公共健康的开发控制研究

回顾现代开发控制的起源、建立与发展，梳理了现代开发控制的制度框架，指出开发控制通过四种方式促进公共卫生与健康：规划法规建筑条例控制，城市规划与用地布局引导，行政许可提前干预，协议性条件的应用。然后，对比国外现有的实践与理论，分析我国现有开发控制制度的困境并提出了优化建议：一是完善与公共卫生相关的城乡规划管理条例和建筑条例；二是提出“卫生约”的理念，并据此调整规划的编制技术体系；三是提出“建筑使用”许可制度；四是优化土地出让及规划许可条件。     

Alternative strategies for urban redevelopment: A case study in a squatter housing neighborhood of Ankara

Since the 1980s, the redevelopment of squatter housing settlements has been a primary policy focus of the local and central authorities in Turkey. Their strategies have adopted two different models: one approach was not effective at generating redevelopment activity and produced low quality living environments, and the other approach resulted in dislocation and gentrification. The literature stresses three issues. First, redevelopment sites are areas where market forces failed; thus, they are perceived as high risk, low-demand, and low-return investments with high transaction costs. Second, institutions that lower transaction costs boost market forces and increase economic performance in property development. Third, local authorities remain active in urban redevelopment; despite having no direct tools for local economic development, they do have tools for urban development. This study reformulates the basic transaction cost thesis and hypothesizes that local authorities can boost urban redevelopment by making changes to institutions or ‘the rules of the game’ by increasing information flow, positive externalities and perceived returns and by decreasing transaction costs, negative externalities and risks, all of which motivate land owners and house-builders. To test this hypothesis, I have conducted household surveys and semi-structured interviews with house-builders in a squatter housing neighborhood undergoing a gradual transformation. The goal of this study was to search for the impacts of the local authority’s strategies on homeowner inertia, private sector disinvestment and the implications of urban redevelopment. My findings revealed that the local authorities can produce desirable results for less attractive neighborhoods with the help of marketing, institutional strategies and effective land use planning without leading to dislocation and gentrification. Overall, this study suggests that ‘institutional’ strategies are crucial for urban policies and future urban redevelopment activities.     

商品住房市场土地供给政策调控的传导机制分析

土地供给政策在中央及各城市的房地产调控政策文件中频繁出现,表明了其在住房市场调控中的重要作用。本文就各土地供给政策工具将如何影响商品住房市场进行研究,希望对土地供给政策的制定提供参考。文章主要通过供求均衡模型分析各土地供给政策对住房市场的作用。并得出如下结论:各土地供给政策通过影响土地市场各环节和住房市场供给弹性对商品住房市场产生影响,其影响渠道较为复杂,但主要土地供给政策工具通过各种渠道影响住房市场的方向是可以判断的。土地供应数量通过住房供给数量、土地价格水平及住房供给预期三种渠道影响住房市场,且同时从三种渠道对房价产生负向作用;我国2002～2004年进行的土地出让方式改革则通过住房供给数量、土地价格水平和住房供给价格弹性影响住房市场,且三种渠道都会助推房价的上涨。     

Club Goods and Local Government

Problem: Private approaches to urban service provision are becoming more popular. Some argue these approaches are more efficient and more democratic than government provision because they are voluntary. While these club approaches can shift the burden of infrastructure finance to direct groups of users, they can also fragment urban service delivery and justify unevenness in service quality across the city.

Purpose: This article explores examples of club goods, that is, common interest developments (CIDS) for housing, business improvement districts (BIDs) for commercial areas, and economic development zones (EDZs) for commercial and industrial areas, and assesses their implications for local government. Emphasis is given to how clubs internalize benefits to members of the club but shed externalities onto the broader local government system. A critical governance concern is the impact on the long-term ability of local government to coordinate across disparate elements and interests in the community.

Methods: I discuss three types of clubs ranging from totally private common interest developments (home owners associations), to partially private business improvement districts, to totally public economic development zones. These club types are analyzed in terms of economic benefits, externalities, governance structure, and broader concerns with equity and sustainability.

Results and conclusions: Club good approaches to urban infrastructure delivery enhance private investment and reduce costs to cities, but they also shed externalities onto the broader city. Although these clubs are often private associations, this article shows how they are critically supported by government, beyond the property rights requirement assumed by most theorists. A further concern is that club approaches may undermine support for equity and redistribution at the broader city level.

Takeaway for practice: Local governments are under pressure to provide public goods efficiently and engage private voluntary approaches whenever possible. The efficiency and popularity of club approaches derives in part from their ability to capture the benefits of increased investment for internal benefit. However, local government managers also must manage diversity and build public support for investment to ensure equity across the urban territory. Balancing the benefits of club goods with the need for broader urban integration is a key challenge for planners and urban managers.

Research support: None.     

The reform of the urban land use system in Eastern Europe: A suggestion for belgrade

This paper provides suggestions to reform the urban land use system in Eastern European cities, using the city of Belgrade as an example. The main features of the current system are examined, as well as their effects on urban development. The suggested reform is based on: (a) privatizing urban land; (b) introducing markets for urban land; and (c) redefining the role of local government. Methods to privatize the land are selected, and general policy issues related to this and to the introduction of a market for urban land are discussed. A framework for government intervention is suggested.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 31st European Congress of the RSAI, Lisbon, Portugal, August 1991.     

市场主导的城中村改造规划设计对策

随着我国城乡一体化建设步伐的加快及土地资源的紧缺,城中村改造逐渐成为政府工作的重要内容,但由于财力、人力、权益、计划等方面的问题,政府主导的城中村改造具有一定的局限性。基于此,研究以市场主导为切入点,针对城中村改造中存在的问题,结合规划设计实践,提出市场化城中村改造的规划设计对策,即通过城中村专项规划来保证相关部门制定切实可行的改造政策,以城市设计的角度来引导市场化城中村改造,形成规划管理与公众参与并重的机制,以分期开发滚动平衡的思路评价市场化城中村改造的优劣,充分运用社区模式打造混合住区。     

Collaborative development: Capturing the public value in private real estate development projects in Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam

This article addresses a relative gap in the literature on real estate development and property rights in transitional economies, particularly on the “shadow” role of private developers in urban management at the local level. The paper argues that the development of high-rise buildings in Vietnam resulted from the national privatization policy shift known as Doi Moi that gave landowners greater rights. These changes in land rights policy are important constitutive elements for institutional functionality of value capture via privatization of land, to become viable and effective. Further, the paper describes how private developers (foreign and domestic) take advantage of vague and indistinct city governance regarding privatization of land, while the property rights of the original users of the land are insufficiently protected. These issues are illuminated and analyzed through the use of three case studies of commercial projects in Ho Chi Minh City. We suggest a further institutionalization of privatization of land and value capture in Vietnam.     

长春市空间扩展非协调性及其行为主体博弈机理研究

城镇建设用地空间扩展研究是可持续发展研究中的重要组成部分。针对当前国内外城市空间扩展相对缺乏协调性及其行为主体博弈机理的研究,文中以 1993 ～ 2010 年的长春市为例,运用弹性系数,从人口、经济和固定资产投资与城市建设用地间增长速度视角分析其城市空间扩展的非协调性,从地方政府与农民的征地博弈、开发商的区位选择博弈、绩效考核体制与分税制下的中央(或上级政府)与地方政府的博弈、"产权区域"视角的区际政府博弈、"条块管理体制下"的中央部门与地方政府博弈以及城市公众的需求博弈等方面分析各行为主体对城市空间无序、非协调性扩展的原因机理所在。结果表明:三者的弹性系数都大于 1,城市空间无序、低效扩展态势非常明显;其中"用地—固定资产投资弹性系数"与"用地—经济弹性系数"几乎相差 4 倍,进一步印证了城市建设用地的低效投入,而"用地—人口弹性系数"与"用地—经济弹性系数"的比较表明地方政府更多注重经济效率,而相对忽视"人"的发展,严重抑制了人口城镇化进程;行为主体间的博弈更多反应出来的是一种制度安排不合理,制度安排是其价值扭曲的根源所在。据此最后从制度设计层面提出对策建议。