Analysis and characterization of device variations in an LSI chip using an integrated device matrix array

For future large-scale integration design technology, the device matrix array (DMA), which precisely evaluates within-die variation in device parameters, has been developed. The DMA consists of a 14-by-14 array of common units. The unit size is 240 by 240 /spl mu/m, and each unit contains 148 measurement elements (52 transistors, 30 capacitors, 51 resistors, and 15 ring oscillators). The element selection and precise measurement are achieved with low parasitic resistance measurement buses and leakage-controlled switching circuits, which allow the measurement accuracy for a transistor, resistor, or capacitor of 90 pA, 11 m/spl Omega/, and 23 aF, respectively, in the 3/spl sigma/ range. The ability to obtain 29 008 samples from a chip enables statistical analysis of the variation in 148 elements of each chip with 240-/spl mu/m spatial resolution. This high resolution and large sample number allows us to precisely decompose the data into systematic and random variation parts with newly developed fourth-order polynomial fitting. Our methodology has been verified using a test chip fabricated by a 130-nm CMOS process with a 100-nm physical gate length and five Cu interconnect layers. In MOSFETs, the random part was dominant and indicated a certain /spl sigma/ value in every chip. In the case of the interconnect layers, the random and systematic parts of the resistance and the capacitance indicated variance fluctuations. By chip, by item, by size, by structure, random or systematic, the /spl sigma/ values of each variation show inconsistency which we believe is attributable to the Cu process. The correlation coefficients of systematic part between device element and ring oscillator frequency shown very high value (0.87-0.98), and those of a random part were low enough (-0.10-0.22) to prove the accuracy of decomposition.     

Submicrometer Electron-Beam Direct Writing Technology for 1-Mbit DRAM Fabrication

A 1-Mbit DRAM with 0.5-/spl mu/m minimum linewidth is fabricated using variable shaped e-beam direct writing technology. A simple linewidth control technique using newly developed submicrometer resists is developed to achieve high resolution and better linewidth accuracy. In addition, a highly accurate registration technique is developed to ensure required overlay. These techniques are successfully used to achieve overlay accuracy of 0.04 /spl mu/m(sigma) and linewidth deviation of 0.018 /spl mu/m(sigma) in the fabrication.     

Noninvasive imaging of bioimpedance distribution by means of current reconstruction magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography

We have developed a novel magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT) algorithm-current reconstruction MREIT algorithm-for noninvasive imaging of electrical impedance distribution of a biological system using only one component of magnetic flux density. The newly proposed algorithm uses the inverse of Biot-Savart Law to reconstruct the current density distribution, and then, uses a modified J-substitution algorithm to reconstruct the conductivity image. A series of computer simulations has been conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed current reconstruction MREIT algorithm with simulation settings for breast cancer imaging applications, with consideration of measurement noise, current injection strength, size of simulated tumors, spatial resolution, and position dependency. The present simulation results are highly promising, demonstrating the high spatial resolution, high accuracy in conductivity reconstruction, and robustness against noise of the proposed algorithm for imaging electrical impedance of a biological system. The present MREIT method may have potential applications to breast cancer imaging and imaging of other organs.     

Image reconstruction in magnetic resonance conductivity tensor imaging (MRCTI)

Almost all magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT) reconstruction algorithms proposed to date assume isotropic conductivity in order to simplify the image reconstruction. However, it is well known that most of biological tissues have anisotropic conductivity values. In this study, four novel anisotropic conductivity reconstruction algorithms are proposed to reconstruct high resolution conductivity tensor images. Performances of these four algorithms and a previously proposed algorithm are evaluated in several aspects and compared.     

Using the MIS capacitor for doping profile measurements with minimal interface state error

Doping profiles can be measured to best advantage by using MIS capacitors when one is interested in the profile either very close to the semiconductor surface or in very heavily doped semiconductors. This paper shows both experimentally and theoretically that the major error caused by interface states can be minimized by using either the pulsed capacitance voltage technique or by the second-harmonic profiling technique. This makes possible profile measurements in MIS capacitors even with very large interface state densities, and makes it advantageous to use MIS capacitors for the express purpose of profile measurements. The minimization of interface state errors is contingent upon using a high enough measurement frequency. Moreover, the closer to the interface that the profile is desired, the higher the frequency must be. At high enough frequencies, the intrinsic resolution of the method allows accurate measurement of the doping profile only to within a few extrinsic Debye lengths of the Si-SiO2interface. Curves are presented indicating the closeness to the interface attainable within a 2 percent profile error as a function of measurement frequency, doping level, and temperature. Comparison of experimental measurements with theory on uniformly doped samples at 5 and 30 MHz substantiates our analysis of interface state effects. Finally, a nonuniform profile is measured to illustrate the method.     

Universal Magnetic Circuit for Resolvers with Different Speed Ratios [Instrumentation Notes]

This paper proposes a universal magnetic circuit for resolvers with different speed ratios. A resolver is an electromechanical transducer that converts the angular position of a rotor into an electric signal. The analysis and test results led to the conclusion that by using an appropriate magnetic material and assuring high-precision manufacturing it is possible to obtain high-precision resolvers with electrical error well below 1 minute of arc. Also it was proved that by using a single type of magnetic circuit it is possible to create multipole, two-speed resolvers. This system is used to improve both accuracy and resolution of angle measurement.     

A high precision monolithic super-beta operational amplifier

A single-chip (67/spl times/90 mil) integrated-circuit operational amplifier using thin-film resistors and super-gain transistors has been designed to achieve dc follower accuracies of 0.001 percent with 100-k/spl Omega/ source resistance. The circuit achieves gains of 140 dB using thermally balanced layout designs for both input and output stages, nulled drifts of 0.3 /spl mu/V//spl deg/C, and offset currents well under 1 nA. All other dc specifications including power-supply variation error (PSRR), common-mode gain error (CMRR), etc., are in the 1-10 ppm error range; and a procedure is given by which long-term drifts of less than 10 /spl mu/V/month can be assured. AC performance is comparable to general-purpose integrated-circuit operational amplifiers, i.e., f/SUB t/=300 kHz and slew rate of 1.2 V//spl mu/s at gain of ten. The circuit is externally compensated for unity gain with a single 390-pF capacitor and is fully input and output protected.     

Imaging electrical impedance from acoustic measurements by means of magnetoacoustic tomography with magnetic induction (MAT-MI)

We have conducted computer simulation and experimental studies on magnetoacoustic-tomography with magnetic induction (MAT-MI) for electrical impedance imaging. In MAT-MI, the object to be imaged is placed in a static magnetic field, while pulsed magnetic stimulation is applied in order to induce eddy current in the object. In the static magnetic field, the Lorentz force acts upon the eddy current and causes acoustic vibrations in the object. The propagated acoustic wave is then measured around the object to reconstruct the electrical impedance distribution. In the present simulation study, a two-layer spherical model is used. Parameters of the model such as sample size, conductivity values, strength of the static and pulsed magnetic field, are set to simulate features of biological tissue samples and feasible experimental constraints. In the forward simulation, the electrical potential and current density are solved using Poisson's equation, and the acoustic pressure is calculated as the forward solution. The electrical impedance distribution is then reconstructed from the simulated pressure distribution surrounding the sample. The present computer simulation results suggest that MAT-MI can reconstruct conductivity images of biological tissue with high spatial resolution and high contrast. The feasibility of MAT-MI in providing high spatial resolution images containing impedance-related information has also been demonstrated in a phantom experiment.     

基于4Q-PSD的高分辨率横向位移探测方法研究

在分析四象限位置敏感器件(4Q-PSD)结构及特点的基础上,利用该器件作为核心探测器,设计了一种光电探测系统,对高分辨率横向位移的探测进行了研究。系统主要包括LED光发射、光接收、信号处理和显示等部分。LED发射的光束经聚焦透镜汇聚后射向反射镜,反射光聚焦到一个4Q-PSD上,经线性化的信号处理电路处理后,可实现高分辨率横向位移的测量。实验证明:横向位移测量稳定性与精度与测量距离无关,系统的误差主要来自反射镜反射的非均匀性。     

Some Effects of Field Perturbation Upon Cavity-Resonance and Dispersion Measurements on MIC Dielectrics

An analysis is presented of field perturbations in MIC resonators in order to examine the errors which occur in permittivity measurements made by cavity-resonance methods: Q factor, coupling effects, fringing fields, crystal misalignment (for anisotropic materials), changes in ambient temperature are all considered. Analysis of a cavity with mixed boundary conditions shows that the resonant-mode frequencies depend to the first order on that part of Q/sub 0/ associated with imperfect electric (metal) walls, but to the second order on that part associated with imperfect magnetic (open-circuit) walls. A new expression is given for the Q of an open-ended microstrip resonator when surface waves are excited in the dielectric, and it is shown that the unloaded Q (Q/sub 0/) can be dominated by this phenomenon. It is further shown that these Q-related effects, together with reactive perturbations arising from fringing, coupling structures, are the principal source of error in measurements for epsilon or epsilon/sub eff/. Such reactive effects may be treated semiquantitatively by applying Slater's perturbation theorem to the affected region. These procedures lead to the following revised values for the crystal permittivity of sapphire (monocrystalline Al/sub 2/0/sub 3/) in the microwave region: epsilon/sub ||/ (parallel to the c axis) = 11.6; epsilon/sub /spl perp// (base-plane) = 9.4.     

生物组织磁聚焦电导率成像原理及反演算法

生物组织磁聚焦电导率成像系统利用多圈螺旋电感线圈形成聚焦磁场激励和检测导电目标,达到了提高成像空间分辨率的目的。根据所推导的频率变化与分层生物组织电导率的关系，引入遗传算法对目标电导率进行反演优化计算，获得了充足的成像数据。对于给定的十层分层生物组织模型，反演优化所得电导率除最深层有较大偏差需要进行数据处理外，其余均与目标一致，成像数据非常可靠；成像速度为百毫秒数量级但是具有很大提高潜力。计算结果表明该方法能够有效地对生物组织进行分层媒质建模计算，进一步采取措施能够实现较高分辨率的实时成像。     

Electrical conductivity imaging via contactless measurements

A new imaging modality is introduced to image electrical conductivity of biological tissues via contactless measurements. This modality uses magnetic excitation to induce currents inside the body and measures the magnetic fields of the induced currents. In this study, the mathematical basis of the methodology is analyzed and numerical models are developed to simulate the imaging system. The induced currents are expressed using the A-phi formulation of the electric field where A is the magnetic vector potential and phi is the scalar potential function. It is assumed that A describes the primary magnetic vector potential that exists in the absence of the body. This assumption considerably simplifies the solution of the secondary magnetic fields caused by induced currents. In order to solve phi for objects of arbitrary conductivity distribution a three-dimensional (3-D) finite-element method (FEM) formulation is employed. A specific 7 x 7-coil system is assumed nearby the upper surface of a 10 x 10 x 5-cm conductive body. A sensitivity matrix, which relates the perturbation in measurements to the conductivity perturbations, is calculated. Singular-value decomposition of the sensitivity matrix shows various characteristics of the imaging system. Images are reconstructed using 500 voxels in the image domain, with truncated pseudoinverse. The noise level is assumed to produce a representative signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 80 dB. It is observed that it is possible to identify voxel perturbations (of volume 1 cm3) at 2 cm depth. However, resolution gradually decreases for deeper conductivity perturbations.     

正则化一步动态重建算法在磁感应成像中的应用

磁感应成像是对生物组织的电导率进行图像重建的一种方法,高斯牛顿方法通过不断迭代并重新计算灵敏度矩阵进行非线性图像重建,精度高但耗时较长.结合正则化技术,提出高斯牛顿一步动态重建算法,通过实验获得了相关参数的最优解.基于正问题的数学模型,建立磁感应成像测量模型,利用有限元方法求解,所得到的灵敏度矩阵和磁矢势应用于逆问题中...     

InSbMIS结构的磁电容谱研究

测量了ｎ型ＩｎＳｂ金属－绝缘体－半导体器件的磁量子电容谱，发现ｐ型沟道中二维空穴子带对磁场有很大的依赖关系，对这种依赖关系作出了定性的解释。     

Magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT): simulation study of J-substitution algorithm

We developed a new image reconstruction algorithm for magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT). MREIT is a new EIT imaging technique integrated into magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) system. Based on the assumption that internal current density distribution is obtained using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique, the new image reconstruction algorithm called J-substitution algorithm produces cross-sectional static images of resistivity (or conductivity) distributions. Computer simulations show that the spatial resolution of resistivity image is comparable to that of MRI. MREIT provides accurate high-resolution cross-sectional resistivity images making resistivity values of various human tissues available for many biomedical applications.     

对称共路外差干涉法测量硬盘磁头飞行高度瞬态调制

在线检测硬盘磁头飞行高度(FH)是高密度磁存储技术商品化的重要环节。提出了一种对称共路双频外差干涉测量硬盘磁头飞行高度的方法,用于在线检测磁头飞行高度瞬态调制变化。采用横向塞曼激光器作为外差光源,结合高速相位测量技术,可实现对磁头飞行高度高分辨率(0.1 nm),高采样频率(100 kHz)直接在线溯源测量。通过对称布局的两路差动干涉仪结构,系统能自适应补偿环境振动等扰动引入的随机误差以及盘片复杂运动引入的阿贝误差,还可兼容透射式玻璃盘片模拟条件下的硬盘磁头飞行高度的测量。结果表明,当盘片的偏摆在1.2μm时,系统可清晰描述小于10 nm的飞行高度调制现象。     

An ultralow-power switched opamp-based 10-B integrated ADC for implantable biomedical applications

This paper describes an ultralow-power switched opamp-based integrated analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for cardiac pacemakers applications. The ADC consumption, measured on 10 chip samples and averaged, is 8.18 /spl mu/W (stand-by value: 1 nW) for the analog part and of 9.71 /spl mu/W (5 nW) for the digital one, using a supply battery of 2.8 V. The converter has a resolution of 10-b, its typical operating clock frequency is 32 KHz (2.9 KS/s sampling rate) and is able to reach the same resolution at 2 V (0.7 KS/s sampling rate), with a dissipation of 1 /spl mu/W and 1.3 /spl mu/W for analog and digital part, respectively.     

Imaging elastic properties of biological tissues by low-frequency harmonic vibration

The elastic properties of soft tissues are closely related to their structure, biological conditions, and pathology. For years, physicians have used palpation as a crude elasticity measurement tool to diagnose diseases in the human body. Based on this simple concept, but using modern technology, several elasticity imaging schemes have been developed during the past two decades. In this paper, we present two elasticity imaging methods that use a low-frequency (Hz to kHz range) harmonic force to excite the tissue. The first method, called magnetic resonance elastography (MRE), uses a phase sensitive magnetic resonance technique to detect tissue motion. Excitation is usually performed with a mechanical actuator on the surface of the body, although other excitation methods are possible. In the second method, called vibro-acoustography, the radiation force from focused ultrasound is used for excitation in a limited region within the tissue. Tissue motion is detected by measuring the acoustic field emitted by the object in response to the vibration. The resulting images in both methods can be related to the dynamics of the object at the excitation frequency. The spatial resolution of MRE and vibro-acoustography images is in the millimeter and sub-millimeter ranges, respectively. Here, we present the theory and physical principles of MRE and vibro-acoustography and describe their performances. We also present results of experiments on various human tissues, including breast, brain, and vessels. Finally, we discuss potential clinical application of these two imaging methods.     

Novel MIS Ge-Si quantum-dot infrared photodetectors

The metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) Ge-Si quantum-dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) are successfully demonstrated. Using oxynitride as gate dielectric instead of oxide, the operating temperature reaches 140 and 200 K for 3-10 and 2-3 /spl mu/m detection, respectively. From the photoluminescence spectrum, the quantum-dot structures are responsible for the 2-3 /spl mu/m response with high operation temperature, and the wetting layer structures may be responsible for the 3-10 /spl mu/m response. This novel MIS Ge-Si QDIP can increase the functionality of Si chip such as noncontact temperature sensing and is compatible with ultra-large scale integration technology.