Recovery of Phenolic Antioxidants and Functional Compounds from Coffee Industry By-Products

The recovery process of the phenolic compounds from the coffee industry by-products and their antioxidant activity were investigated in this work. The coffee by-products (coffee pulp, husk, silver skin, and spent coffee) were obtained from coffee processing industry. The phenolic conserves were extracted using solvent mixture of isoproponal and water. The yield of the conserve was highest in case of silver skin (25%) followed by spent waste (19%) and cherry husk (17%) when pretreated with viscozyme. The conserve enclosed chlorogenic acid as major component when analyzed with high-performance liquid chromatography. The bioactive conserves prepared from coffee by-products possessed 65%–70% antioxidant activity. Apart from these, the coffee by-products encompassed total dietary fiber of 40%–80%. Whereas the soluble and insoluble fiber proportion of the coffee by-product ranged between 16–35% and 18–64%, respectively. The antioxidant activity of coffee by-product fiber ranged from 1.5 to 2.0 mmol trolox/100 g and is analogous to that of widespread fruits and fresh vegetables. The hydration properties such as water holding capacity of each by-product was strictly related to the amount of insoluble fiber and to the granulometry. This is the first report on the isolation of bioactive and functional compounds from coffee by-products and can be a source of new value-added products such as phenolic antioxidant adjunct for food processing.     

Evaluation of Protease-producing Ability of Fish Gut Isolate Bacillus cereus for Aqua Feed

Extracellular protease production by Bacillus cereus isolated from the intestine of fish Mugil cephalus has been investigated in shake-flask experiment using different preparations of tuna-processing waste such as raw fish meat, defatted fish meat, alkali hydrolysate, and acid hydrolysate as nitrogen source. Among the tuna preparations tested, defatted fish meat supported the maximum protease production (134.57 ± 0.47 U ml⁻¹), and 3% concentration of the same was found to be optimum for maximizing the protease production (178.50 ± 0.28 U ml⁻¹). Effect of carbon sources on protease production in the optimized concentration of defatted tuna fish meat revealed that galactose aided the higher protease production (259.83 ± 0.04 U ml^–1) than the other tested carbon sources and a concentration of 1.5% galactose registered as optimum to enhance the protease production (289.40 ± 0.16 U ml⁻¹). The halotolerancy of B. cereus for protease production indicated that 3% of sodium chloride was optimum to yield maximum protease (301.63 ± 0.20 U ml⁻¹). Among the surfactants tested, protease production was high in Triton X 100-added medium (298.63 ± 0.12 U ml⁻¹) when compared to other surfactants, and its optimum concentration recorded was 0.8% (320.57 ± 0.17 U ml⁻¹) for more protease production. Partial characterization of crude enzyme revealed that pH 7.0 (278.90 ± 0.08 U ml⁻¹) and 60°C temperature (332.37 ± 0.18 U ml⁻¹) were optimum for better protease activity by B. cereus.     

Optimization of Process Parameters for Foaming of Bael (Aegle marmelos L.) Fruit Pulp

Foam expansion and foam stability of the bael (Aegle marmelos L.) fruit pulp foam was studied. Foams were prepared from various pulp concentrations (PC) by adding different concentration of glycerol monostearate (GMS) and methyl cellulose (MC) at different whipping time (WT). Response surface methodology was used to predict the foam stability and expansion. Thirty experiments were carried out using a central composite rotatable design with four independent variables (GMS, MC, PC, and WT). Second-order polynomial equations were developed after removing insignificant terms for predicting foam expansion (R ² = 0.85) and stability (R ² = 0.95). The optimum conditions achieved after the numerical and graphical optimization for maximum foam expansion and stability was: GMS (3.10 g/100 g pulp), MC (0.32 g/100 g pulp), PC (13.2°Bx), and WT (2 min). The desirability of 0.712 was achieved at this optimum point. The predicted values of foam density and foam drainage volume were 0.658 g cm⁻³ and 1.75 mL, respectively, at optimum parameters while the experimental values were 0.635 ± 0.02 g cm⁻³ and 1.75 ± 0.12 mL, respectively.     

Optimization of Enzymatic Hydrolysis Pretreatment Conditions for Enhanced Juice Recovery from Guava Fruit Using Response Surface Methodology

The effect of enzyme concentration (0.16–0.84 mg/100 g guava pulp), incubation temperature (36.6–53.4 °C), and incubation time (0.95–11 h) on juice yield was studied. A central composite rotatable design was used to establish the optimum conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis of guava to obtain maximum juice yield. Significant regression model describing the changes of juice yield with respect to hydrolysis parameters were established with the coefficient of determination, R ² = 0.85. Enzyme concentration was the most significant variable affecting the juice yield. The recommended enzymatic treatment condition from the study was at the enzyme concentration 0.70 mg/100 g guava pulp, incubation time 7.27 h, and incubation temperature 43.3 °C.     

Modeling and Optimization of Enzymatic Degradation of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Red Chili Powder Using Response Surface Methodology

Response surface methodology was used to optimize the peroxidase-catalyzed enzymatic degradation of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) from red chili powder. Twenty experiments were carried out using central composite rotatable design with three independent variables (enzyme concentration, substrate or AFB₁ concentration, and incubation time) and single response (% aflatoxin B₁ degradation). The optimum conditions achieved after numerical and graphical optimizations for maximum percent degradation were: AFB₁ (31.5 nM), enzyme (13.5 U/nM AFB₁), and time (26 h). The actual percent degradation achieved at these optimum conditions was 70.0% and predicted 74.5%. The reduced quadratic model developed for the experimental data was found adequate to describe the relationships between the operating variables (Model F = 21.61, p < 0.001; F _lof = 3.63, p > 0.05). The robustness of the model was tested by confirmation experiments, and difference was found insignificant between the actual and predicted values as confirmed by two-tailed t test (α = 0.05). The hepatotoxic effect of the AFB₁ pre- and post-detoxification was tested on Wistar rats. The detoxified powder was also tested for changes in ascorbic acid, β-carotene, ASTA color value, and capsaicin content. Capsaicin was resistant to enzymatic degradation under specified conditions, but loss of around 15% was reported in color and β-carotene content; the loss in ascorbic acid was 10%.     

Optimization of Aspergillus niger Fermentation for the Production of Glucose Oxidase

A number of nutritional factors influencing glucose oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4) production by Aspergillus niger NCIM 545 were studied. The synthesis of glucose oxidase by A. niger was investigated in two steps using submerged fermentation at 30 ± 2 °C and 180 rpm for 96 h. Primarily, nutritional components were selected by one-factor-at-a-time method, and the significance of each component with respect to glucose oxidase production was identified by Plackett–Burman design (seven variables including six nutritional viz. sucrose, sodium nitrate, peptone, calcium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, and potassium dihydrogen phosphate, and one dummy or unassigned variable were studied with eight experiments). In the second step, concentration of most significant factors and their interaction were studied with response surface methodology (central composite design). Each variable in the design was studied at five different levels, with all variables taken at a central coded value of zero. Considerable amount of glucose oxidase was produced from A. niger species with sucrose as the carbon source, sodium nitrate as the inorganic nitrogen source, and peptone as the organic nitrogen source. Glucose oxidase activity increased remarkably by 28.93 fold (from 0.00993 to 0.29 U ml⁻¹) with CaCO₃-supplemented media. The outcome of Plackett–Burman design showed CaCO₃, peptone, and MgSO₄ as significant parameters. Further optimization using a three-factor central composite design with 20 experiments increased yield of glucose oxidase from 0.29 to 2.05 U ml⁻¹ (sevenfold) with a decrease in cultivation time from 96 to 72 h.     

Statistical optimization,partial purification,and characterization of coffee pulp β-glucosidase and its application in ethanol production

Extracellular β-glucosidase was produced using coffee pulp as a sole carbon source by Penicillium verrucosum by solid state fermentation and 897.36±59 U/g enzyme activity was obtained. Increase in 2.21-fold of enzyme activity on optimizing the bioprocess parameters by response surface methodology based on central composite rotatable design is illustrated. Maximum production level of 1,991.17 U/g was obtained with optimum values of pH 4.2, moisture 66.8%, and fermentation duration of 56 h. The enzyme was partially purified and the enzyme activity was optimum at 50°C temperature and at pH 6. The metal ions such as Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺, detergents, and chelator such as EDTA were effective and further increased the β-glucosidase activity. On application of β-glucosidase for simultaneous saccharifiation and fermentation, 3.3% ethanol was obtained. Thus, this study provides insight on exploitation of P. verrucosum for synthesis of of β-glucosidase using coffee pulp which is available abundantly in coffee processing industries.

     

Comparison Between Systems for Synthesis of Fructooligosaccharides from Sucrose Using Free Inulinase from Kluyveromyces marxianus NRRL Y-7571

This work is focused on the synthesis of the fructooligosaccharides (FOS) from sucrose using free inulinase from Kluyveromyces marxianus NRRL Y-7571 in aqueous and aqueous–organic systems. The most significant variables for the aqueous–organic system were identified using a fractional factorial design. The evaluated variables were the temperature, pH, sucrose concentration, inulinase activity, aqueous/organic ratio, and the polyethylene glycol concentration. The use of sequential experimental design methodology was shown to be very useful in the optimization of the FOS synthesis by inulinase either in aqueous or aqueous–organic systems. For the aqueous–organic system, the maximum Y _FOS reached was 16.7 ± 1.1 wt.% with the following operational conditions: temperature of 40 °C, enzyme activity of 4 U mL⁻¹, organic solvent/total system ratio of 25/100, pH of 6.0, and sucrose concentration of 55%. In the aqueous system, the maximum conversion obtained was 12.8 ± 1.0 wt.% under the following conditions: 40 °C, pH 5.0, 55% sucrose, and inulinase activity 4 U mL⁻¹.     

Improved Sample Preparation for Real-Time PCR Detection of Listeria monocytogenes in Hot-Smoked Salmon using Filtering and Immunomagnetic Separation Techniques

This work evaluated the application of filtration and immunomagnetic separation (IMS) as sample pretreatments for use in combination with real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect and quantify Listeria monocytogenes in hot-smoked salmon. Salmon was artificially inoculated with L. monocytogenes at levels ranging from 8 × 10⁰ to 8 × 10⁵ cfu/g of sample, and homogenates obtained from these samples were filtered to recover bacterial cells without a pre-enrichment step. High recovery of bacterial cells was achieved using standard coffee filters. IMS significantly reduced the co-extraction of PCR inhibitors present in the samples to increase the assay sensitivity with regression line parameters applicable for quantification. The limit of detection and quantification were equal to 2 × 10¹–4 × 10¹ and 2 × 10² cfu/g of sample, respectively. The entire detection procedure could be completed within 3.5 h. This study demonstrated that coupling filtration and IMS with real-time PCR has contributed to improve the sensitivity of L. monocytogenes detection from hot-smoked salmon.     

Engineering Properties of Edible Transglutaminase Cross-Linked Caseinate-Based Films

In this work, the effect of the weight ratio (Y _E/C) between transglutaminase (TGase) and sodium caseinate on the main engineering properties and microstructure of maltodextrin/caseinate/glycerol-based films, as well as cross-linking kinetics of the corresponding film-forming mixtures, was assessed. In the absence of TGase, the film forming solution did not jelly at all even after a 20-h gel cure experiment at 30 °C. As Y _E/C was increased from 0.5 to 8.3 mg/g, the gel point time exhibited quite a hyperbolic dependence on Y _E/C, whereas the pseudo-first order reversible kinetic constant rate of casein reticulation linearly increased with the enzyme concentration. Despite a certain data scattering, the initial and equilibrium complex shear moduli appeared to be practically constant and independent of Y _E/C. This finding was also extended to the mechanical and water barrier properties of the films under study. This was also indirectly confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, the film structure being quite compact, dense, and about free of air bubbles. In particular, their complex tensile modulus (E*) resulted to be not only independent of the cross-linking agent dosage but also interconvertible with the elastic modulus (E) determined in the quasi-static mode at an initial strain rate equal to the angular frequency. The water vapor permeability (WVP) for all the films examined was found to be extremely dependent on the water, desiccant, or Permatran-W standard methods used as well as on the difference in water activity (a _W) at the inside (a _Wi = 1.0 or 0) and outside (a _Woi = 0 or ∼0.5) of the test cup. By maintaining a _Wi = 0 and a _Woi = 0.5, the Permatran-W method yielded practically constant WVP values (30 ± 4 pg m⁻¹ s⁻¹ Pa⁻¹) whatever the enzyme/caseinate ratio used. Nevertheless, TGase appeared to decrease the water vapor permeability of not cross-linked maltodextrin–caseinate films.     

Storage Properties of Low Fat Fish and Rice Flour Coextrudates

In the present study, response surface method (RSM) and genetic algorithm (GA) were used to study the effects of process variables like screw speed, rpm (x ₁), L/D ratio (x ₂), barrel temperature (°C; x ₃), and feed mix moisture content (%; x ₄), on flow rate of biomass during single-screw extrusion cooking. A second-order regression equation was developed for flow rate in terms of the process variables. The significance of the process variables based on Pareto chart indicated that screw speed and feed mix moisture content had the most influence followed by L/D ratio and barrel temperature on the flow rate. RSM analysis indicated that a screw speed > 80 rpm, L/D ratio > 12, barrel temperature > 80 °C, and feed mix moisture content > 20% resulted in maximum flow rate. Increase in screw speed and L/D ratio increased the drag flow and also the path of traverse of the feed mix inside the extruder resulting in more shear. The presence of lipids of about 35% in the biomass feed mix might have induced a lubrication effect and has significantly influenced the flow rate. The second-order regression equations were further used as the objective function for optimization using genetic algorithm. A population of 100 and iterations of 100 have successfully led to convergence the optimum. The maximum and minimum flow rates obtained using GA were 13.19 × 10⁻⁷ m³/s (x ₁ = 139.08 rpm, x ₂ = 15.90, x ₃ = 99.56 °C, and x ₄ = 59.72%) and 0.53 × 10⁻⁷ m³/s (x ₁ = 59.65 rpm, x ₂ = 11.93, x ₃ = 68.98 °C, and x ₄ = 20.04%).     

Biosensing Applications of Modified Core–Shell Magnetic Nanoparticles

Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were synthesized and silanized to form a core–shell (Fe₃O₄–SiO₂) structure. Afterwards, surface modification with amino silane was carried out to produce amino groups on the MNPs for the biomolecule immobilization. In order to test the performance of amino functional MNPs as immobilization platform in biosensing applications, glucose oxidase was immobilized on the surface via glutaraldehyde. Obtained Bio-MNPs were then fixed onto the carbon paste electrode by the aid of magnetic force and used as the working electrode during the amperometric measurements at −0.7 V versus Ag/AgCl. After optimization of some parameters affecting the biosensor performance, analytical characterization was carried out. Linearity was found in the range of 0.25–2.0 mM glucose and defined by the equation of y = 8.366x + 1.819, (R ² = 0.996). Proposed biosensor was then applied for the glucose analysis in various beverages. Finally, data were compared with a commercial enzyme assay kit based on spectrophotometric Trinder reaction as a reference method.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw, pasteurized and UHT milk commercialized in Esfahan and Shahr-e Kord, Iran

Between September 2006 and September 2007, 236 samples of raw (n = 140), pasteurized (n = 48) and UHT (n = 48) milk were collected from supermarkets and from bulk milk tanks of eight dairy plants in the cities of Esfahan and Shahr-e Kord, Iran. All samples were analyzed for aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) contamination by ELISA and 213 (90.3%) were positive with mean concentrations 65 ng.l⁻¹. These concentrations are lower than the standards of Codex Alimentarius and FDA (500 ng.l⁻¹), but 119 samples (55.9%) had higher concentrations than the maximum tolerance accepted by some European countries (50 ng.l⁻¹). Mean concentrations of AFM₁ in raw, pasteurized and UHT milk were 68, 56, and 65 ng.l⁻¹, respectively. Mean concentrations of AFM₁ in autumn and winter samples were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of spring and summer but differences between AFM₁ concentrations of spring and summer samples were not significantly different. Concentrations of AFM₁ in milk from Shahr-e Kord were significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than those from Esfahan.     

Optimization of supercritical CO2 extraction of phytosterol-enriched oil from Kalahari melon seeds

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) extraction of oil from Kalahari melon seeds was investigated in this study. Response surface methodology was applied to model and optimize the extraction, namely pressure (200–400 bar), temperature (40–80 °C), and supercritical fluid flow rate (10–20 mL/min). Well-fitting models were successfully established for oil recovery (R ² = 0.9672) and phytosterol concentration (milligrams per 100 g; R ² = 0.8150) through multiple linear regressions with backward elimination. The effect of supercritical fluid flow rate was the most significant (P < 0.05) factor that affected oil recovery but this factor had no significant (P > 0.05) effect on phytosterol concentration. The optimal processing conditions for oil recovery and phytosterol concentration were pressure of 300 bar, temperature at 40 °C, and supercritical fluid flow rate of 12 mL/min. These optimal conditions yielded a 76.3% oil recovery and 836.5 mg/100 g of phytosterol concentration. The oil content in the Kalahari melon seeds as estimated by Soxhlet extraction was around 30.5/100 g. The phytosterol concentration in the oil extracted with SC-CO₂ extraction was 94% higher than that obtained with solvent extraction.     

Simultaneous Determination of 69 Pesticide Residues in Coffee by Gas Chromatography?CMass Spectrometry

A method using gel permeation chromatography (GPC) combined with solid-phase extraction (SPE) cleanup followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been established for quantitative determination of 69 pesticide residues in coffee. Based on an appraisal of the characteristics of GC-MS, validation experiments were conducted for 69 pesticides. In the method, 2.0 g samples were mixed with 5 ml water and 1 g sodium chloride and extracted with 5 ml of ethyl acetate by blender homogenization, centrifugation, and filtration. Evaporation was conducted and the sample was injected into a 250 mm × 10 mm S-X3 GPC column, with ethyl acetate–n-hexane (1:2 v/v) as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 3 ml/min. The 4–15 min fraction was collected for the SPE cleanup, which was Envi-Carb SPE cartridge coupled with NH₂-LC SPE cartridge with acetone–ethyl acetate (2:5 v/v) as the eluted solvent. The eluents were collected and then evaporated to dryness, which was redissolved in 0.5 ml ethyl acetate for GC-MS analysis. For the 69 pesticides determined by GC-MS, the portions collected from GPC were concentrated to 0.5 ml and exchanged with 5 ml n-hexane. In the linear range of each pesticide, the correlation coefficient was R ² ≥ 0.99. At the low, medium, and high fortification levels of 0.05–1.0 mg/kg, recoveries fell within 60–120%. The relative standard deviation was between 1.3% and 22.3% for all 69 pesticides. The limits of detection for the method were 10 μg/kg to 150 μg/kg, depending on each pesticide.     

Modeling and Optimization of Lipozyme RM IM-Catalyzed Esterification of Medium- and Long-Chain Triacyglycerols (MLCT) Using Response Surface Methodology

Optimization conditions of Lipozyme RM IM lipase esterification of capric and stearic acids with glycerol for the production of medium- and long-chain triacyglycerols (MLCT) fat suitable for food applications such as margarine and shortening were investigated. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to model and optimize the reaction conditions, namely, the reaction time (8–24 h), enzyme load (5–15 wt.%), and fatty acids/glycerol ratio (3:1–4:1) and represented by Ti, En, and Sb, respectively. Best-fitting models were successfully established for both MLCT yield (R ² = 0.9507) and residual FFA (R ² = 0.9315) established by multiple regressions with backward elimination. Optimal reaction conditions were 13.6–14.0 h for reaction time, 7.9–8.0 wt.% for enzyme load, and 3:1 for fatty acids/glycerol molar ratio. Chi-square test showed that there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences between the observed and predicted values of both models. Refined MLCT fat blend had sufficient solid fat at room temperature and made it suitable to use as a hard stock in shortening and margarine production.     

Evaluation of Functional Properties in Protein Hydrolysates from Bluewing Searobin (Prionotus punctatus) Obtained with Different Microbial Enzymes

Enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins from low commercial value fish could be produced for uses like functional ingredients in a wide and always increasing zone of application in different food products. The objective of this work was to evaluate the functional properties and the amino acid profile of enzymatic hydrolysates from Bluewing searobin (Prionotus punctatus), using two microbial enzymes, Alcalase and Flavourzyme. The enzymatic hydrolysate obtained through the addition of the enzyme Alcalase reached the maximum solubility (42%) at pH 9, water holding capacity (WHC) of 2.4 g_water  g_protein ⁻¹, 4.5 g_oil g_protein ⁻¹ of oil holding capacity (OHC) and an emulsifying activity index (EAI) of 54 m² g_solids ⁻¹ at pH 3. On the other hand, the hydrolysate obtained from Flavourzyme attained 38% of solubility at pH 9, 3.7 g_water  g_protein ⁻¹ and 5.5 g_oil g_protein ⁻¹ for the holding capacities, and an EAI of 71 m² g_solids ⁻¹ at pH 11. The hydrolysate with Flavourzyme produced best results for WHC, OHC, and EAI because it had solubility lower than the hydrolysate of Alcalase. The hydrolysate produced by Alcalase had a higher amino acid content compared with Flavourzyme’s hydrolysate. However, both showed a good essential amino acid amounts. In general, these results indicate the potential utilization of the hydrolysate from Bluewing searobin in food formulations for the direct human consumption.     

Production of Cutinase by Fusarium oxysporum on Brazilian Agricultural By-products and its Enantioselective Properties

The production of cutinase by solid-state fermentation, using by-products such as wheat bran, rice bran, or soybean rind, was carried out using a Fusarium oxysporum strain. The fermentation process was optimized using a central composite design. The best conditions for cutinase production were achieved at 28–30 °C, with water added at 100–150% (w/w) after 72 h of incubation, in the range of 11.7–15.5 U/mL. In addition, the resolution of (R,S)-2-octanol and (R,S)-ibuprofen was performed to evaluate the enantioselectivity of the preparations of cutinase. The cutinase produced from the soybean rind attained higher yields and enantioselectivity in the resolution of (R,S)-2-octanol with octanoic acid in isooctane (E = 9.6). For the (R,S)-ibuprofen resolution, the cutinase produced from rice bran reached the best yields (E = 5.6). This work demonstrated that the enzymes can be produced from different media, such as from by-products or residues rich in carbon sources that do not necessarily present the same biochemical properties, which may be useful for industrial applications.     

Listeria innocua Multi-target Inactivation by Thermo-sonication and Vanillin

Hurdle technology combining an emerging preservation technique such as low-frequency ultrasound is an alternative for processing juices that are susceptible to suffer a loss of quality due to traditional heat treatments. Predictive microbiology allows evaluation of the effectiveness of preservation techniques and its combinations in order to enhance both food quality and safety. Listeria innocua inactivation by thermo-sonication along with vanillin was investigated. Fermi model (R ² _adj= 0.970 ± 0.02) and surface response methodology (p < 0.05) were utilized in order to evaluate the survival of L. innocua to a multi-target treatment and to predict the interactions of studied techniques, high-intensity/low-frequency ultrasound (20 kHz/400 W) at selected wave amplitudes (60, 75, or 90 μm), temperature (40, 50, or 60 °C), and vanillin (200, 350, or 500 mg/kg). A combination of ultrasound, vanillin, and temperature enhanced L. innocua inactivation as described by Fermi parameters a and t _c, which decreased as the studied effects increased. A multi-target inactivation effect was observed for a temperature range of 45–55 °C.     

Thin Layer Drying of African Breadfruit (Treculia africana) Seeds: Modeling and Rehydration Capacity

African breadfruit (ABF) seeds are underutilized plant resources, which have been reported to have high potential for novel food and industrial uses. The kinetics of moisture removal during air drying of the whole (WS) and dehulled (DS) seeds was studied at temperatures of 40–70 °C. Five empirical models were tested for predicting the experimental data. Drying of ABF seeds followed an exponential decay pattern, while drying predominantly took place during the falling rate periods. All the drying models predicted the experimental data above 90% accuracy while the Henderson–Pabis model gave the best fit (0.95 < r ² < 0.99) at most of the experimental conditions. Effective moisture diffusivity, D _eff, ranged from 3.65 to 7.15 × 10⁻⁹ m²/s and 3.95 to 6.10 × 10⁻⁹ m²/s for WS and DS, respectively. D _eff showed significant dependence on the moisture content (p < 0.01). Rehydration capacity of DS was not significantly affected by drying temperature while that of WS increased with drying temperature.