Experimental and numerical analysis of solidification cracking behaviour in fibre laser welding of 6013 aluminium alloy

Abstract

Experimental observation and numerical modelling were employed to investigate the solidification cracking behaviour during fibre laser welding of 6013 aluminium alloy. The solidification cracking initiation location and propagation path were studied using a high speed camera system and via metallurgical analysis. A three-dimensional thermomechanical finite element model of fibre laser welding of aluminium alloys was developed, which considered cylindrical volumetric heat source, temperature dependent material properties, solidification shrinkage and stress relaxation in the weld molten pool. The transient evolution and distribution of mechanical strain in the brittle temperature range (BTR) were analysed in detail to find the factors which drove the crack initiation and propagation. The results showed that the solidification cracking initiated near the fusion line and then propagated along the centreline of the weld, which was the result of the strain distribution characteristic in BTR.     

2519厚板搅拌摩擦焊缝组织性能及断裂分析

采用搅拌摩擦焊方法对厚度为20mm的2519高强铝合金板进行了单道对接焊试验,并对焊缝的微观组织、力学性能及断裂特性进行了分析.试验结果表明,在旋转速度为1600 r/min、焊接速度为30mm/min时,20mm厚板焊缝的抗拉强度可达313MPa;厚板焊接时,因焊接速度较慢,厚板焊缝搅拌区的平均显微硬度在115 HV左右,出现了较大程度的软化,其软化区长度约为55 mm;其断裂形式为韧性和脆性的混合型断裂.20mm厚板焊接时,上下板面搅拌区的温差在150℃左右,热机作用梯度沿板厚急剧变化,是厚板焊接比薄板焊接困难的原因之一.     

6013合金拉伸性能与锯齿流变行为

测定了6013合金的室温拉伸性能;通过拉伸实验着重研究了6013合金于180℃4h时效后在50℃,80℃,120℃,160℃下拉伸锯齿特性,拉伸温度对6013合金的锯齿幅度、锯齿周期、临界伸长率等影响;并就6013合金的锯齿流变特性与机制进行了初步的研究。研究结果表明:在50℃~160℃温度范围,6013合金的在拉伸过程中有明显的锯齿流变现象产生;随着拉伸温度的升高,锯齿应力幅度降低,临界伸长率略有增加,而锯齿周期明显降低;分析表明:在不同的温度下拉伸,晶体内溶质原子的扩散速度不同,将影响到锯齿的类型和有关的锯齿幅度、锯齿周期、临界伸长率等参数。Mg原子与位错的交互作用应该是形成锯齿流变的主要原因。论文根据Schwarz-Funk公式估计了6013合金中Mg原子的扩散激活能约为:1.94kJ/mol。     

7B04铝合金疲劳断裂性能研究

研究了新型的7B04铝合金预拉伸厚板不同热处理状态的断裂韧性和疲劳裂纹扩展性能变化,试验结果表明,该合金T7451状态的断裂韧性和疲劳裂纹扩展性能明显优于T651状态的性能。     

时效对锆-锶复合微合金化6013铝合金性能的影响

采用光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜和透射电子显微镜等分析手段,研究了时效对Zr-Sr复合微合金化6013铝合金硬度、电导率和抗晶间腐蚀性的影响.结果表明,随着时效时间的延长,该铝合金电导率逐渐升高,硬度先升高后降低,在191℃时效4h达到最大值159 HV0.1.与欠时效、过时效态相比,峰时效态具有更严重的晶间腐蚀倾向;自然时效态不发生晶间腐蚀,只发生轻微点蚀.     

Corrosion of aluminium and aluminium alloy in ethylene glycol–water mixtures

Samples of pure aluminium and aluminium alloy were heated at 150 kPa and 130 °C in ethylene glycol (EG)–water mixture (volume ratio 1:1) for 172 h (8–12 h heating, 12–16 h pause). The corrosion of the metals was characterised by the transfer of Al into solution, changes in the surface morphology of the samples and their electrochemical behaviour. Formation of a white crystalline aluminium-organic precipitate was found during the heating of metals and some of its characteristics were determined. The effect of the addition of glycolic, citric and sebacic acid to the EG–water mixture on the metal corrosion behaviour was investigated. A significant corrosive action of glycolic acid and a protective effect of sebacic acid were found.     

Corrosion resistance of cerium‐based chemical conversion coatings on AA5083 aluminium alloy

In this paper the effect of several parameters, such as temperature, time of immersion, cerium ions and hydrogen peroxide concentration, pH of the conversion solution, on the composition and morphology of the conversion layer are investigated as well as on its corrosion resistance in chloride environments. The cerium‐based chemical conversion coatings ennobles the corrosion potential and inhibits both the cathodic and anodic reactions rate. Using a cerium (III) chloride solution a not homogeneous coating is obtained and agglomerates with a “dry‐mud” morphology of mixed cerium‐aluminium oxide are deposited above the cathodic intermetallic particles, while using a cerium (III) nitrate solution the coating is more uniform but thinner than that obtained with cerium (III) chloride. Solution temperature below 50°C and time of immersion of 10 minutes produces a coating with better corrosion resistance.     

Corrosion protection of pure aluminium and aluminium alloy (AA7075) in salt solution with silane‐based sol–gel coatings

Sol–gel films of tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), phenyltriethoxysilane (PTES) and phenyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS) were prepared on aluminium and aluminium alloy AA7075 and characterised. The corrosion inhibition properties of uncoated and coated specimens were evaluated with potentiodynamic polarisation scan, linear polarisation resistance and open circuit potential measurements. With scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy effects of the sol–gel coating were shown. Weight loss measurements were performed at different pH‐values. More hydrophobic coatings as PTMS show a considerably better corrosion inhibition capacity as compared to the capacity provided by less hydrophobic ones as TEOS and PTES.     

Toughness of aluminium alloy foams

The fracture behaviour of closed cell aluminium-based foams (trade-name “Alulight”) is characterized for the compositions Al–Mg1–Si0.6 and Al–Mg1–Si10 (wt%), and for a relative density in the range 0.1–0.4. The toughness testing procedures are critically analysed, and the origins of the observed R-curve behaviour for metal foams are explored. A major contribution to the observed increasing crack growth resistance with crack advance is in the development of a crack bridging zone behind the crack tip. The crack bridging response is quantified in terms of a crack traction vs extra displacement curve by performing independent tests on deep notch specimens. The area under the bridging traction vs extra displacement curve from the deep notch tests is approximately equal to the measured initiation toughness J_IC, in support of the crack bridging concept. A line spring model is then used to interpret the fracture response. The effect of material composition and relative density upon the initiation toughness is measured, and the accuracy of an existing micromechanical model for the fracture toughness of a brittle foam is assessed. Finally, the reduction in tensile and compressive strengths due to the presence of an open hole is determined; it is found that the Alulight foams are notch-insensitive, with the net section strength equal to the unnotched strength.     

Wear resistance of laser-clad Ni–Cr–B–Si alloy on aluminium alloy

Using a 5 kW CO₂ laser, two kinds of plasma-sprayed coatings, Ni–Cr–B–Si and Ni–Cr–B–Si+WC alloys, were remelted on aluminium alloy. The wear resistance of both laser-treated samples and plasma-sprayed samples were investigated using a pin-on-disc sliding friction wear tester. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to analyse the abrasion phenomena of the samples and a transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to study the microstructure of the laser-clad zone. Experimental results showed that the laser-clad samples had double the wear resistance of the plasma-sprayed samples, and that the laser-clad Ni–Cr–B–Si sample exhibited the highest wear resistance. The results of wear surface analysis showed that the microstructure of the alloyed layer of the laser-clad samples was quite compact and the surfaces were also very smooth, and there was less peeling phenomenon of the granules. The microstrucutre of the plasma-sprayed sample was rather loose and there were a lot of granular peelings left on the worn surface. A study of the microstructure showed extensive amorphous and ultra-crystalline structures in the laser-clad zone, to which the increase in hardness and wear resistance may be attributed.     

Corrosion of aluminium,stainless steels and AISI 680 nickel alloy in nitrogen‐based fuels

Nitrogen‐based compounds can potentially be used as alternative non‐carbon or low‐carbon fuels. Nevertheless, the corrosion of construction materials at high temperatures and pressures in the presence of such fuel has not been reported yet. This work is focused on the corrosion of AISI Al 6061, 1005 carbon steel (CS), 304, 316L, 310 austenitic stainless steels (SS) and 680 nickel alloy in highly concentrated water solution of ammonium nitrate and urea (ANU). The corrosion at 50 °C and ambient pressure and at 350 °C and 20 bar was investigated to simulate storage and working conditions. Sodium chloride was added to the fuel (0–5 wt%) to simulate industrial fertilizers and accelerated corrosion environment. Heavy corrosion of CS was observed in ANU solution at 50 °C, while Al 6061, 304 and 316L SS showed high resistance both to uniform and pitting corrosion in ANU containing 1% of sodium chloride. Addition of 5% sodium chloride caused pitting of Al 6061 but had no influence on the corrosion of SS. Tests in ANU at 350 °C and 20 bar showed pitting on SS 304 and 316L and 680 nickel alloy. The highest corrosion resistance was found for SS 310 due to formation of stable oxide film on its surface.     

Aluminum alloy 6013 sheet for new U.S. Navy aircraft

The recently developed aluminum alloy 6013-T6 has been selected for the fuselage skin and other applications on the U.S. Navy’s P-7A airplane, in place of the traditional 2024-T3 clad sheet. Alloy 6013-T6 is naturally corrosion resistant, like the well-established alloy 6061, and hence is used unclad. Its fatigue strength, fatigue crack growth and fracture toughness compare favorably with 2024-T3. Replacement of alloy 2024 with alloy 6013 also reduces manufacturing costs for formed parts, because 6013 is readily formed in the T4 temper, then simply aged to T6, thus avoiding the costly heat treatments and straightening required for alloy 2024.     

An experimental investigation of constraint effects on mixed mode fracture initiation in a ductile aluminium alloy

The effect of constraint on ductile fracture initiation from a notch tip under mode I and mixed mode (involving modes I and II) loading is investigated. To this end, mixed mode fracture experiments are performed with Compact Tension Shear (or CTS) specimen of a ductile 2014-O aluminium alloy. The constraint effects are investigated by considering specimens with two crack length to width ratios. The effect of crack tip constraint on the relationship between the critical value of the J-integral at fracture initiation (J_c) and M_p is examined. Further, the micromechanics of mixed mode ductile fracture initiation is investigated by performing fractographic studies and metallographic examination of the mid-plane region of the specimen near the notch tip.     

Strain-rate effects in the environmentally assisted fracture of a commercial high-strength aluminium alloy (7049)

Specimens of this high-strength aluminium alloy, cut parallel to the short transverse direction, have been tested in tension at slow strain-rates in the T651 condition using various environments: vacuum, dry air, laboratory air and sea-water, with and without prior exposure to sea-water. Accurate measurements of the reduction in area at fracture reveal a reversible pre-exposure embrittlement due to hydrogen absorption that is observed at slow strain-rates, the critical strain-rate decreasing in the less aggressive environments. Recovery from pre-exposure embrittlement only occurs in this material when specimens are subsequently strained in an inert environment, otherwise the pre-exposure effects and the embrittling effect of the test environment are additive.Fractographic examination indicates that absorption of hydrogen leads first to transgranular and then to intergranular brittle failure and the evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that the transition occurs at lower local hydrogen concentrations (i.e. shorter pre-exposure) as the strain-rate is decreased.Stress corrosion tests carried out in tap-water under potentiostatic control reveal that a cathodic and an anodic region of embrittlement both become extended as the strain-rate is decreased. However, fractography and the observed effect of over-aging both tend to confirm that the major embrittling process at the free corrosion potential is hydrogen embrittlement.The results are discussed with reference to earlier results reported for a similar alloy (7075) and apparent discrepancies explained. In particular, the aggressiveness of laboratory air, frequently employed as a reference environment, is emphasized.     

Fibre laser welding of aluminium alloy

The objectives of this research are to investigate the effects of various welding conditions on penetration and defect formation, to clarify their welding phenomena and to develop the procedure of reduction of the defect. Fibre laser bead-on-plate welding was performed on several aluminium alloys, in particular A5083, at the power of 6 or 10 kW and several power densities from 0.4 kW/mm². It was found that the weld beads were narrower and deeper with an increase in the laser power density. For example, fully penetrated weld beads in 10 mm thick plates were produced at the laser power density of 640 kW/mm² and the welding speed of 10 m/min. However, convex–concave bead surfaces were formed. Moreover, in the case of the high power density, no porosity and many pores were present at high and low welding speeds, respectively. On the other hand, in the case of the ultra-high power density, few pores were generated in high speed welding. These reasons were interpreted by observing keyhole behaviour, bubble formation and the molten pool geometry during high power fibre laser welding with a high-speed video camera and microfocused X-ray transmission in situ observation method. Moreover, the porosity in the weld bead was reduced and prevented by the utilization of nitrogen gas instead of Ar gas, or the forward inclination angle of 40° (50° from the right angle) in Ar shielding gas.     

铝合金的搅拌摩擦焊

在详细介绍搅拌摩擦焊原理，特点的基础上，针对铝合金的搅拌摩擦焊特点，性能以及工业应用进行了阐述，并且对搅拌摩擦焊在中国市场的发展和应用作了简略介绍和预测。     

Fluidity of aluminium die castings alloy

Abstract

The aim of the present work was to investigate the fluidity of four different high pressure die cast Al–Si alloys at different pouring temperatures. A vacuum fluidity test apparatus was employed to measure fluidity. The analysed alloys showed different flow sensitivities to casting temperatures. Furthermore, it is showed that among the considered alloying elements, magnesium and silicon affected the fluidity of the melt. One alloy was then contaminated with 50% scrap addition, increasing the amount of oxide inclusions. The fluidity of the contaminated melt has then been measured and compared with the fluidity of the clean melt. The results show that the fluidity of the alloy with scrap addition is lower than that of the clean melt. Further the fluidity linearly increases at increasing temperatures within the range between 580 and 680°C until it reaches a plateau at the highest pouring temperatures.     

大塑性变形6013铝合金的时效特性与力学性能

利用X射线衍射分析（XRD）、差示扫描量热法（DSC）和拉伸试验,研究不同温度等通道转角挤压（ECAP）和常规静态时效处理后6013 Al-Mg-Si铝合金的微观结构、时效行为、析出动力学以及力学性能。XRD测得的ECAP变形后合金的平均晶粒尺寸在66-112 nm范围内,平均位错密度在1.20×10^14-1.70×10^14 m^-2范围内。DSC分析表明,由于ECAP后试样比常规时效处理试样拥有更细小的晶粒和更高的位错密度,因此,ECAP变形后合金的析出动力学更快。与未变形合金相比,ECAP后试样的屈服强度和抗拉强度都得到了显著提高。室温ECAP后试样的强度达到最大,其屈服强度是静态峰时效屈服强度的1.6倍。细晶强化、位错强化以及由于ECAP过程中的动态析出而产生的析出相强化,是ECAP合金获得高强度的几种主要强化机制。