Patterns of student growth in reasoning about correlational problems.

Previous studies of correlational reasoning have focused on the interpretation of 2?×?2 tables. The research in this article examined age trends in responses to problems involving more than 2 continuous variables. Instruments were developed and administered to Ss from Grade 4 through postgraduate (n?=?20 in each grade) to produce multidimensional profiles of student growth. Exp 1 found that correlational reasoning skills increased with age. Exps 2 and 3 found that student performance could be improved through instruction. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the instruments was obtained. Although there were similarities between results obtained with 2?×?2 data problems and results on continuous data problems, the evidence in support of a single correlational schema underlying both was ambiguous. There was no transfer, and correlations between the 2 types of performance were weak. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of subjective deprivation in adulthood.

Used data from H. Cantril's 1965 national probability sample of 1,409 persons over 20 yrs of age to count the numbers and to describe the characteristics of individuals experiencing different types of subjective deprivation and to evaluate Cantril's assertion that some of these types of subjective deprivation are ontogenetic in nature. The taxonomic effort showed that hypotheses about age-related subjective deprivation were to some degree confirmed. There were significant differences for age as well as the other demographic variables and self-ratings that led to tentative characterizations of each type. However, there were several findings contrary to expectations (e.g., black respondents did not have unrealistically high expectations as suggested by Cantril). Even if cross-sectional data could be assumed to reflect developmental sequences, the pattern of age-related deprivation and nondeprivation had neither the uniformity nor the consistency to provide evidence for a single ontogenetic sequence. At least 2 possible patterns were discernible. These patterns could only be interpreted as developmental if one invoked a concept such as an average expected life history, which is either explicit or implicit, shared by a group, subject to change, and more or less accurate. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parametric statistics and levels of measurement.

If Y is a continuous, ordinal measure of latent variable θ and Y has a normal distribution with equal variances in several groups, then t tests and one-way analyses of variance on Y can be used to test hypotheses about population mean differences on θ in the corresponding groups. If X and Y are continuous, ordinal measures of latent variables θ and φ, and if X and Y have a bivariate normal distribution, then a test of the null hypothesis that the population correlation between X and Y is zero is also a test of the hypothesis that θ and φ are independent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual and empirical analysis of some assumptions of an explicitly typological theory.

Argues that the 1st of the 2 criteria for single-variable typologies, multimodality, offered by G. A. Mendelsohn et al (see record 1983-00168-001) is a weak one for psychological data and that only the 2nd criterion, discontinuity against an external variable, is telling. The present author agrees that the requirement of Mendelsohn et al that multiple-variable typologies combine interactively to predict external variables is a mandatory one, although it is not one that is diagnostic of typology. These issues are illustrated by a multiple-variable, explicitly typological system specified by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). 104 rural public school employees (mean age 37.4 yrs) were administered the MBTI to determine bookishness and to give the typological theory a fair hearing. Results show no predictor bimodality, although the distribution displayed platykurosis, the index of which is maximized with bimodal distributions. A review of relevant MBTI research, coupled with these findings, challenges pessimism about the verifiability of all typological systems. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the group mind: A quantitative review of the interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect.

This quantitative review of 130 comparisons of interindividual and intergroup interactions in the context of mixed-motive situations reveals that intergroup interactions are generally more competitive than interindividual interactions. The authors identify 4 moderators of this interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect, each based on the theoretical perspective that the discontinuity effect flows from greater fear and greed in intergroup relative to interindividual interactions. Results reveal that each moderator shares a unique association with the magnitude of the discontinuity effect. The discontinuity effect is larger when (a) participants interact with an opponent whose behavior is unconstrained by the experimenter or constrained by the experimenter to be cooperative rather than constrained by the experimenter to be reciprocal, (b) group members make a group decision rather than individual decisions, (c) unconstrained communication between participants is present rather than absent, and (d) conflict of interest is severe rather than mild. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Twin imitation for antisocial behavior: Implications for genetic and family environment research.

When twin pairs influence each other's behavior, observed variance is greater for monozygotic (MZ) twins than for dizygotic (DZ) twins under at least 1 of 2 conditions: (1) The trait has some heritability, and (2) MZ twins influence each other more than do DZ twins. Applied to a trait that has an underlying continuous distribution but is measured as a dichotomy, the presence of reciprocal twin influence predicts that if the base rate for the trait is not exactly 50%, then the prevalence of the trait should differ in MZ and DZ twin pairs. This prediction held for registered criminality in a large twin cohort. Methods of analysis that permit reciprocal twin interaction not only provide better statistical fits to the data but also yield estimates of heritability that agree with adoption data. Results suggest that the genetic influence on registered criminality may be more modest than previously thought. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy = endowment × efficiency: Revisiting efficacy and endowment effects in a public goods dilemma.

This article reexamines the efficacy and endowment effects in public good (PG) dilemma by conceptualizing that efficacy = endowment × efficiency. Endowment is the resource that a person can contribute. Efficiency is the impact of a unit of endowment. Efficacy is the total impact of contribution. The authors used a group project scenario to simulate a continuous contribution PG dilemma. The 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 experimental design manipulated own efficiency and own endowment as within-subject variables and the other persons' efficiency and endowment as between-subject variables. Results indicate that cooperation was mainly affected by one's endowment and others' efficiency. The authors distinguished among 3 types of efficiency effects: (a) an own-absolute-efficiency effect that efficient people put in more effort regardless of others' efficiency, (b) an other-absolute-inefficiency effect that people put in more effort when others are inefficient, and (c) a relative-inefficiency effect that inefficient people put in less effort in the presence of efficient people. Contrasting previous robust findings on efficiency, they identified a situation in which efficiency has no effects--when one has more endowment than do others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of three variables on children's concepts of physical causality.

"This study investigated the effects of 3 variables on children's concepts of physical casuality. It was found that: (1) The nature of the causal thinking of withdrawn children is at a significantly less mature level than the causal thinking of normal children. (2) Questions about phenomena whose causal agents are not accessible to direct experience yielded significantly more nonnaturalistic responses than did questions about phenomena whose causal agents are more ascessible. (3) Questions worded so as to suggest the possible operation of 'animistic,' 'supernatural,' or 'dynamic' forces yielded more such nonnaturalistic types of responses than questions less suggestively worded." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

FE Modeling of Strain Localization in Soft Rock

A finite-element (FE) model of localized deformation in soft rock taking a strong discontinuity approach is presented. The model is formulated within the context of rate-independent, nonassociated Drucker-Prager plasticity with nonlinear cohesion hardening∕softening. Strain localization is modeled as a jump in the displacement field and simulated within the framework of the FE method using the standard Galerkin approximation. The model is used to simulate the load-displacement behavior of Gosford sandstone deforming in plane strain, focusing on the prediction of the stress levels necessary to initiate strain localization, based on the strong and weak discontinuity criteria (jumps in displacement and strain, respectively), and on the demonstration of mesh-independence of the FE solutions in the bifurcated state. For the sandstone, the onset of weak discontinuity is detected first, before the onset of strong discontinuity, suggesting a possible coupling of the two types of discontinuities in the strain-softening regime.     

Memory for algebra story problems.

In 2 experiments, 48 undergraduates were tested for the recall of different aspects of algebra story problems. In a 3rd experiment, 36 undergraduates constructed standard algebra story problems. Propositions about relations among variables were harder to remember than propositions that assigned a value to a variable, and Ss were far more likely to convert a relation into an assignment than vice versa. Recall was better for schema-relevant than schema-irrelevant information and for common problem types than uncommon ones, and Ss tended to convert uncommon problem types into common types and to construct common rather than uncommon problem types. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing the degree of cross-sectional and longitudinal dependence between two discrete dynamic processes.

Developmental research often involves studying change across 2 or more processes or constructs simultaneously. A natural question in this work is whether change in these 2 processes is related or independent. Associative latent transition analysis (ALTA) was designed to test hypotheses about the degree to which change in 2 discrete latent variables is related. The ALTA model is a type of latent class model, which is a categorical latent variable model based on categorical indicators. In the ALTA approach, level and change on 1 variable is predicted by level and change in another. Two types of hypotheses are discussed: (a) broad hypotheses of dependence between the 2 discrete latent variables and (b) targeted hypotheses comparing specific patterns of change between levels of the discrete variables. Both types of hypotheses are tested via nested model comparisons. Analyses of relations between psychological state and substance use illustrate the model. Recent psychological state and recent substance use were found to be associated cross-sectionally and longitudinally, implying that change in recent substance use was related to change in recent psychological state. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Termination, appointment use, and outcome patterns associated with intake therapist discontinuity.

Psychotherapy clients often experience intake therapist discontinuity: meeting first with an intake therapist, then entering therapy with a different treating therapist. The authors compared such discontinuity clients at a university’s counseling center (55.6% of 15,137 clients) with continuity clients, who continued therapy with their intake therapists. Discontinuity clients were twice as likely as continuity clients to terminate by missing the appointment after intake. Improvement among discontinuity clients lagged behind improvement among continuity clients at Sessions 2 and 3. Though more likely to terminate by missing Session 2, discontinuity clients attended 2 sessions more than continuity clients, on average, making treatment of discontinuity clients 19% more expensive than treatment of continuity clients in terms of sessions attended. The extra sessions attended by discontinuity clients did not yield overall better outcomes. Intake therapist discontinuity appeared to disrupt the beginning of psychotherapy, dissuading some clients from returning after intake, slowing early improvement among those who did return, and unproductively lengthening their treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric approaches for developing commensurate measures across independent studies: Traditional and new models.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 14(4) of Psychological Methods (see record 2009-22665-007). In this article, the authors wrote, "To our knowledge, the multisample framework is the only available option within these [latent variable] programs that allows for the moderation of all types of parameters, and this approach requires a single categorical moderator variable to define the samples.” Bengt Muthén has clarified for the authors that some programs, including Mplus and Mx, can allow for continuous moderation through the implementation of nonlinear constraints involving observed variables, further enlarging the class of MNLFA models that can be fit with these programs.] When conducting an integrative analysis of data obtained from multiple independent studies, a fundamental problem is to establish commensurate measures for the constructs of interest. Fortunately, procedures for evaluating and establishing measurement equivalence across samples are well developed for the linear factor model and commonly used item response theory models. A newly proposed moderated nonlinear factor analysis model generalizes these models and procedures, allowing for items of different scale types (continuous or discrete) and differential item functioning across levels of categorical and/or continuous variables. The potential of this new model to resolve the problem of measurement in integrative data analysis is shown via an empirical example examining changes in alcohol involvement from ages 10 to 22 years across 2 longitudinal studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's sensitivity to topical discontinuity in judging story adequacy.

Three experiments were conducted to determine if children are sensitive to topical discontinuity in judging story adequacy. Second- and fifth-grade children and college students listened to stories containing an action sequence involving a premise, a set of filler actions, and an outcome. Topical discontinuity was manipulated by including fillers that were continuous with the outcome, that described a set of actions discontinuous with the outcome, or that described both discontinuous actions and a discontinuous character. In addition, titles and instructions were varied. Even the second graders showed competence in judging the discontinuous stories, and sensitivity varied with both titles and instructions (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bearing Capacity of Strip Footings on Jointed Rock Masses

Bearing capacity solutions are presented for strip footings on jointed rock masses with one and two sets of discontinuities. The solutions employ a lower bound bearing capacity model coupled with a simple discontinuity strength model. The strength of the rock material and the discontinuities, and the number and orientation of the discontinuity sets, are evaluated explicitly. The results are presented as bearing capacity factor charts that illustrate the significant effects of the strength and discontinuity geometric parameters. The trends of the results agree well with those obtained from other models. The solution is straightforward, and it can be implemented manually or in any spreadsheet program.     

Individual differences and general laws in psychology: A reconciliation.

The return of the organism necessitates a reconsideration of the place of individual differences in a psychology of general laws. Distinguishes 2 types of Organism * Environment interaction, and discusses 2 alternative strategies in the search for general laws. A perspective is presented wherein individual differences are considered to be integral to the discovery of general laws. It is suggested that this may be accomplished if the relations sought are between behaviors and the variables which underlie interactions between organisms and environments. A research paradigm for the identification of such variables is proposed. (83 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The outcome of psychotherapy with children.

Examined 75 studies, published between 1952 and 1983, in which children who received psychotherapy were compared with controls or children receiving another form of treatment. Only those studies using Ss younger than a mean age of 13 yrs at the time of treatment were included. Exceptions to the age limitation were made only if separate analyses for younger children were reported or if individual data from older Ss could be eliminated. Results show that therapy with children was similar in effectiveness to therapy with adults; treated children achieved outcomes about two-thirds of a standard deviation better than untreated children. Although behavioral treatments appeared to be more effective than nonbehavioral treatments, this apparent superiority was due largely to the types of outcome and target problems included in behavioral studies. No differences in outcome were found to result from other treatment characteristics such as the use of play in therapy or the administration of treatment individually or in groups. The evidence suggests that previous doubts about the overall efficacy of psychotherapy with children can be laid to rest. A bibliography of the studies examined is appended. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological characteristics of dieters and bulimics.

Two studies examined the continuum and discontinuity models of the relation between dieting and bulimia nervosa. In Study 1, 21 dieters, 19 bulimics, and 33 nondieting controls were compared on 24 measures. Multivariate analyses revealed that each of the groups differed significantly from the other 2. Univariate analyses found 18 significant differences between bulimics and dieters and 1 significant difference between dieters and controls. In Study 2, 86 Ss completed measures of psychological functioning, dieting, and bulimia nervosa. On the basis of regression analyses using factor scores from the psychological variables as predictors, high scores on a psychopathology factor and low scores on a defensiveness factor predicted both bulimia and dieting. Low self-concept scores also predicted bulimia. These data indicate that both continuity and discontinuity characterize the relation between dieting and bulimia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differentiating categorical and dimensional data with taxometric analysis: Are two variables better than none?

Taxometric analyses have proven helpful for distinguishing categorical and dimensional data. Many taxometric procedures require at least 3 variables for analysis. What if a construct is defined by only 2 conceptually nonredundant characteristics or a data set contains only 2 empirically nonredundant variables? In Study 1, we performed extensive simulations to determine whether informative results can be obtained when only 2 variables are available for taxometric analysis. The mean above minus below a cut (MAMBAC) and maximum slope (MAXSLOPE) procedures, used with parallel analyses of comparison data, successfully differentiated categorical and dimensional structure. With just 2 variables, it seems especially important that indicators vary across as many distinct values as possible and that investigators obtain as large a sample as possible. Additional findings address questions about the most effective way to implement taxometric analyses. In Study 2, the potential utility of 2-variable taxometric analysis is illustrated using data on proactive and reactive childhood aggression, where the results provided strong support for dimensional structure. As long as high-quality data are available, it appears that one can have confidence in the results of taxometric analyses performed with only 2 variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)