Naturalistic and structured assessments of prosocial behavior in preschool children: The influence of empathy and perspective taking.

Assessed prosocial behavior in 52 52–66 mo old preschoolers using 3 approaches: (1) naturalistic observation of prosocial events; (2) structured measures of perspective taking, empathy, and 2 types of prosocial behaviors; and (3) teacher ratings of prosocial behaviors under different eliciting situations. Results show that different categories of prosocial behavior within the 1st 2 settings were relatively independent. Teacher ratings were internally consistent but generally unrelated to the other measures. The structured measure of prosocial behavior that had a peer as the recipient was the best predictor of the equivalent observed behavior. Inconsistencies in previous research investigating the empathy–altruism relationships may reflect differences in assessment procedures, because significant relationships between different forms of empathy and prosocial behavior were dependent on the operational definitions of these processes. Ss demonstrated a sensitivity to the needs and feelings of their peers. Although this capacity was not tapped by traditional measures of perspective taking, it may have mediated prosocial behavior in the natural setting. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socialization of prosocial behavior in the preschool classroom.

Videotaped the naturally occurring classroom behaviors of 33 preschool children 51–63 mo old. Instances of prosocial, defensive, and social behaviors were coded, as well as peer and teacher reactions to prosocial behaviors. Although teachers responded positively to Ss' prosocial behaviors only a small percentage of the time, peers reacted positively a moderate proportion of the time. Ss who frequently responded to requests for prosocial behavior received fewer positive reactions from peers than Ss who complied with requests less often. In contrast, teachers were more likely to react positively to girls who exhibited high levels of "asked for" (compliant) prosocial behaviors. The type of reactions an S received for prosocial behaviors was related both to the type of reactions given to others' prosocial behaviors and to positive sociability. Frequent performance of spontaneous prosocial actions was related to a different pattern of behaviors than was frequency of prosocial behaviors in response to a request. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's justifications for their adult and peer-directed compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors.

Examined differences in the quality of child–child and adult–child interactions and children's reasoning about their own compliant behaviors. 61 45–65 mo olds were observed in their classrooms and were interviewed briefly concerning their behavior whenever they were seen complying with either an adult's or a peer's request or demand. Only 32% of compliant behaviors requested by adults were prosocial (directly benefited another), whereas 76% of compliant behaviors requested by peers were prosocial. Ss frequently justified behaviors requested by adults with references to authorities' dictates and punishment. Ss attributed behaviors requested by peers to other-oriented or relational (friendship, liking) concerns more frequently than they did behaviors requested by adults. The difference in the use of authority/punishment and other-oriented justifications for peer- and adult-requested behaviors was found with regard to both prosocial and nonprosocial requests; Ss used more justifications regarding liking of others and friendship only when the request was prosocial in content. Data are discussed in terms of their support for theorists' assertions regarding the difference in peer and adult interaction and in relation to the literature on children's reasoning and attributions about prosocial behaviors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation, model attributes, and prosocial behavior.

Examined the personality and situational effects that influence prosocial behavior. 112 safety- and esteem-oriented (as measured by a sentence-completion test) undergraduates were exposed to an emergency situation wherein the experimenter was ostensibly injured by an "explosion." Results indicate that there were significant situational and personality determinants of helping and imitative behavior. Overall, there was more help when Ss were interacting with an active vs a passive model. Esteem-oriented Ss were more likely to initiate helping behavior and were more strongly influenced by high-competence models. In contrast, safety-oriented Ss helped less overall and were more influenced by high-status models. Results are discussed in terms of a Person?×?Situation paradigm of prosocial behaviors. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and sex role stereotypes: Do macho men and feminine women make better lovers?

Examined the relation of sex and sex-role orientation to self-reported feelings and behaviors of love. It was hypothesized that (a) sex role would have a greater effect on love feelings and behaviors than sex, and (b) androgynous individuals would experience love differently than sex-typed individuals. Data were gathered from 100 male and 136 female college students who identified themselves as being in a love relationship. Ss completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Both hypotheses were supported. There were no sex differences in self-reported love. Androgynous Ss differed from masculine Ss on awareness of love feelings, expression of love, nonmaterial evidence of love, toleration of the loved one's faults, and the total expression of love in their relationship. The androgynous Ss differed from feminine Ss on awareness, willingness to express feelings, and toleration of faults. In all comparisons, androgynous Ss were more loving than sex-typed and undifferentiated Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initial sociometric impressions of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and comparison boys: Predictions from social behaviors and from nonbehavioral variables.

Compared the influence of naturalistic social behaviors and nonbehavioral variables on the development of peer status in 49 previously unfamiliar boys, aged 6–12 yrs. 25 boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 24 comparison boys participated. Physical attractiveness, motor competence, intelligence, and academic achievement constituted the nonbehavioral variables; social behaviors included noncompliance, aggression, prosocial actions, and isolation, measured by live observations of classroom and playground interactions. As early as the first day of interaction, ADHD and comparison Ss displayed differences in social behaviors, and the ADHD Ss were overwhelmingly rejected. Whereas prosocial behavior independently predicted friendship ratings during the 1st wk, the magnitude of prediction was small. In contrast, the Ss' aggression (or noncompliance) strongly predicted negative nominations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sibling relationships on preschoolers' behavior at home and at school.

Observed the social behavior of 34 36–64 mo olds (17 males and 17 females) both in their homes and in their preschools to determine the patterning of interactions among siblings and the consistency in children's interactions with siblings and peers. Results show that at home, preschoolers with older siblings received more aggressive and prosocial behavior than did preschoolers without older siblings; they also played frequently with their older siblings. Preschoolers with younger siblings were more dominant in their interactions than were preschoolers without younger siblings, but they displayed certain types of verbal behavior less often, probably because their young siblings had limited language skills. Indicators of sibling status were not strongly related to behavior at school, but girls who did not have any brothers spent more time unoccupied or as onlookers. Few of the correlations between home and school behaviors were significant, but Ss who were more aggressive toward siblings and Ss who were more often onlookers or unoccupied at home showed similar behavior with peers. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture and the development of everyday social explanation.

Predicted that a developmental test would show (1) that individuals of all ages tested in the Indian and American cultures would display the cognitive skills in classification required to generate dispositional attributions and (2) that references to general dispositions would not vary as a function of attributors' exposure to objective conditions identified by theorists as making taxonomic categorization of behavior adaptive. In Study 1, test data were obtained from 40 middle-class Hindu adults and 90 8-, 11-, and 15-yr-old Hindu children and from 30 middle-class American adults and 90 8-, 11-, and 15-yr-old American children. Ss were asked to narrate 2 prosocial behaviors and 2 deviant behaviors and to explain why the behaviors were undertaken. Results show that at older ages, Americans made greater reference to general dispositions and less reference to contextual factors in explanation. In Study 2, 20 American university students were tested on deviant behavior to determine if differences were cross-cultural or informational. Results show that there were cross-cultural and developmental differences related to contrasting cultural conceptions of Ss acquired over development in the 2 cultures rather than from cognitive, experiential, and informational differences between attributors. (86 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examination of affect and egotism as mediators of bias in causal attributions.

Investigated the relationship between affect and self-attributions following positive (P) and negative (N) behavioral outcomes. In the presence (high publicity) or absence (low publicity) of observers, 63 college students delivered therapeutic instructions that were expected to have a P or N effect and that resulted in a P or N effect on a supposedly phobic patient. Principal findings were that (a) Ss made greater attributions to self for P than for N outcomes; (b) both during and following performance, P outcome Ss reported more P and less N affect than did N outcome Ss; (c) both during and following performance, P outcome Ss reported greater feelings of egotism than did N outcome Ss; and (d) under N outcome conditions, high publicity Ss made lower self-attributions and subsequently also reported greater feelings of egotism than did low publicity Ss. The results support the notion that the observed P–N outcome differences in self-attributions reflect motivational biases in the causal inference process. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of dispositional and situational antecedents in prosocial organizational behavior: An examination of the intended beneficiaries of prosocial behavior.

Research has not adequately separated the factors responsible for prosocial behaviors intended to benefit specific individuals from those intended to benefit an organization. Antecedents of the behavior of 100 secretaries were examined as a function of the beneficiary of the behavior. The value of concern for others and empathy explained significant variance in prosocial behaviors directed only at specific individuals (prosocial individual behavior). Perceptions of reward equity and recognition explained significant variance in behaviors directed only at the organization (prosocial organizational behavior). With these effects removed, the relationship between job satisfaction and prosocial organizational behavior was no longer significant, whereas the relationship between job satisfaction and prosocial individual behavior remained significant. Results suggest that the psychological processes that underlie prosocial behavior are different depending on the beneficiary of the behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dentists' voice control: Effects on children's disruptive and affective behavior.

Examined whether (1) loudness is a necessary component of the technique of voice control (i.e., the use of loud commands in response to disruptive behavior) in pediatric dentistry, (2) voice control actually reduces children's disruptive behavior, and (3) children's negative affect increases after treatment. Ss were 40 3.5–7 yr old children who were scheduled for cavity restoration. Ss were assigned randomly to either loud- or normal-voice groups and were classified as potentially disruptive or not, based on an initial screening. Prior to and after treatment, Ss reported their feelings, and disruptive behavior was scored. Following loud- but not normal-voice commands, Ss reduced their disruptive behavior. After treatment, Ss who received loud- but not normal-voice commands tended to report less arousal and more pleasure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental discipline and affection and children's prosocial behavior: Genetic and environmental links.

The authors investigated genetic and environmental contributions to the relationships between children's (N = 9,319 twin pairs) prosocial behavior and parental positivity and negativity toward them. Children's prosocial behavior was rated by parents at ages 3, 4, and 7 and by teachers at age 7. At each age, parents described their feelings and discipline toward each twin. Parental positivity was indexed by positive feelings and positive, noncoercive discipline, and parental negativity was indexed by negative feelings and coercive, punitive discipline. Genetics and the environment both contributed to individual differences in prosocial behavior and in parenting. At all ages, parental positivity correlated positively, and parental negativity correlated negatively with prosocial behavior. Genetic factors largely mediated the negative correlation between prosocial behavior and parental negativity. Shared environmental effects contributed mainly to the positive relationship between prosocial behavior and parental positivity. This pattern was found both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The findings point to the importance of children's characteristics and of the parent-child relationship in family processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution, reinforcement, and altruism: A developmental analysis.

Conducted 3 experiments with 256 7–10 yr olds in which Ss were induced to donate some of their winnings from a game to poor children. They were then praised for their behavior (reinforcement), told they must have donated because they were helpful people (attribution), or told nothing (control). Subsequent donation, and behavior on a variety of tests of generalized altruism, was assessed. The donation of all Ss was increased both by reinforcement and attributions of prosocial behavior. Neither reinforcement nor attribution affected the generalized altruism of 5-yr-olds, only attribution affected the generalized altruism of 8-yr-olds, and both reinforcement and attribution affected the generalized altruism of 10-yr-olds. Findings are discussed in terms of the effects of reinforcement and attribution on the child's developing self-concept. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of graduated exposure with feedback of exposure times on snake phobias.

In an experiment with 17 female and 3 male snake-phobic Ss (selected from a group of 900 applicants using interview data and results of the Fear Survey Schedule III and the Snake Fear Questionnaire), the S-controlled graduated exposure of a snake with feedback of exposure times resulted in significantly less avoidance behaviors for snake-phobic Ss than for control snake-phobic Ss who did not receive therapy. The therapy did not result in significantly less reported feelings of fear immediately after therapy for the therapy Ss. Both avoidance behaviors and self-reports of fear were significantly less for the therapy Ss than for control Ss when the Ss were given generalization tests 1 mo after the termination of therapy in 1 nonlaboratory situation (a zoo) and 4 laboratory situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family relationships and children's adjustment in clinical and nonclinical stepfather families.

Investigated differences in marital and family process, children's behavioral adjustment in clinical and nonclinical stepfather families, and the relationship of family process to children's psychosocial adjustment. Nonclinical stepfamilies had better parent–child relations, better marital adjustment, and more marital individuation than clinical stepfamilies. Children in clinical stepfamilies had more behavior problems rated with fewer prosocial behaviors, and had more shy and withdrawn behavior than children in nonclinical stepfamilies. More negative and less positive child-to-parent interactions and less spousal individuation correlated with more behavior problems and less prosocial behavior of children. Implications for clinical interventions and future research on stepfamilies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of situational demands and cognitive competencies in behavior organization and personality coherence.

Consistency in the natural organization of aggressive and prosocial (constructive) behavior, assessed repeatedly in vivo over a summer in a residential camp for children, was predicted from situational and personal characteristics. Similarity of situations in the types of competencies they demand in part predicted cross-situational consistency in individual differences in aggressive behaviors (Study 1). Study 2 examined the effect of cognitive competence on the discriminative patterning of behavior variation across situations. More cognitively competent Ss showed such discriminative patterning, which was reflected in greater Person?×?Situation interaction variance in their prosocial behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal responsibility and altruism in children.

Applied P. G. Zimbardo's (1970) deindividuation model to the study of prosocial behavior by asking 177 4–13 yr old Halloween trick-or-treaters in groups of 2–5 Ss to donate candy to hospitalized children under 3 conditions. The designation of personal responsibility for the amount donated was manipulated as follows: no child identified as responsible; one child identified as responsible; and each child identified as responsible. As predicted, personal responsibility increased the likelihood of contributing as well as the number of candies donated. Assigning individual responsibility increased the number of candies donated by each S only if they were in small groups. The absence of a similar outcome among Ss in large groups suggests that the greater social support and/or the greater potential for the diffusion of responsibility in these groups effectively countered the effect of the manipulation of responsibility. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)