Creativity, masculinity, femininity, and three models of psychological androgyny.

Five empirically derived indices of creative self-concept correlated positively with several indices of psychological masculinity in 85 female and 105 male undergraduates and somewhat negatively with indices of psychological femininity among males and females. Among the measures used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Adjective Check List. Production on the Alternate Uses Test correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with femininity in a subset of 50 males explicitly instructed to "be creative." As a reflection of this positive association between masculinity and creativity indices, Ss defined as masculine or androgynous, using conventional median-split methods, obtained significantly higher creativity indices than conventionally defined feminine or unclassifiable Ss. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the applicability of balance, additive, and multiplicative models of androgyny to the study of creativity; (b) the factorial complexity of several currently used masculinity and femininity scales; and (c) possible conflicts between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative females and apparent congruencies between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative males. (85 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in problem-solving performance as a function of attitude differences.

Men make significantly higher scores than women on a scale of attitudes toward problem solving. Attitude scores "have some positive relationship to performance scores." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:1GD56C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and cognitive performance: A meta-analysis.

Reviewed studies on the relation between gender self-concept and performance on spatial, mathematical, and verbal tasks to evaluate S. C. Nash's (1979) hypothesis that individuals will perform better on cognitive tasks when their self-concepts match the gender stereotyping of the tasks. Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the average effect sizes and to determine the significance of the combined probabilities. The influence of Ss' sex and age, date of study, type of spatial task, and type of self-concept measure on these associations was also examined. In general, the results from spatial and mathematical tasks, which are usually stereotyped as masculine, support Nash's hypothesis. Higher masculine and lower feminine self-concept scores were associated with better performance. These relations were observed more consistently for females than for males. There was some evidence of better spatial and mathematical performance among adolescent boys who described themselves as feminine. Nash's hypothesis was not supported for verbal tasks. There was no evidence that androgyny, defined either as high masculine and high feminine scores or as a balance between masculine and feminine scores, is associated with better cognitive performance. (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts.

Evaluated (a) the equivalence of the scales of the short Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ), (b) the construct validity of the short BSRI and EPAQ as measures of well-being, (c) the validity of the concept of androgyny as an intrinsically interactive (rather than simply additive) concept, and (d) the utility and meaning of 2 special EPAQ measures—unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion. 172 college students participated. The short BSRI and EPAQ were empirically interchangeable when placed in a multitrait–multimethod matrix and 2 extrinsic convergent validation rectangles. A hierarchical multiple-regression analysis with interaction terms obtained with the Differential Personality Questionnaire provided only partial support for masculinity and femininity as measures of psychological well-being and no support for the significance of androgyny treated as an interaction of masculinity and femininity. Unmitigated agency and communion did not show the expected negative correlations with the mutual mitigation (interaction) of masculinity and femininity. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Independent masculinity and femininity scales on the California Psychological Inventory.

Obtained California Psychological Inventory responses of 159 male and 128 female college students. A 4-fold typology of sex roles was constructed: The minimum raw scores for males high on MSC (masculinity) and FMN (femininity) were 46 and 28, respectively; for females, 33 and 35. Maximum scores for males low on MSC and FMN were 38 and 23; for females, 29 and 31. The high-masculine/low-feminine person is regarded as the most psychologically healthy of the 4 types. This view resembles the notion of androgyny, with emphasis on balance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal and behavioral analysis of masculinity and femininity in marriage.

Spouses' masculinity and femininity were examined in relation to longitudinal change in marital satisfaction and behavior displayed in a problem-solving discussion. Results indicated, first, that wives' satisfaction declined to the extent that their husband endorsed fewer desirable masculine traits (Study 1) and more undesirable masculine traits (Study 2). Second, masculinity and femininity covaried with problem-solving behavior, particularly for behavioral sequences involving husbands' responses to wives' negative behavior. Finally, the relation between husbands' masculinity and change in wives' satisfaction was not mediated by husbands' behavior; instead, sex role and behavioral variables made independent contributions to change in wives' satisfaction. These results are important because they highlight the value of examining intraindividual and interpersonal variables when determining how marriages improve and deteriorate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem as a function of masculinity in both sexes.

Androgyny has been advocated as the most adaptive mode of human functioning, yet empirical studies suggest that masculinity alone may be the key factor in self-esteem. To investigate this, 237 students completed 3 sex role instruments (the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the ANDRO, and the Desirability scales of the Personality Research Form) and 2 measures of self-esteem (Personal Attributes Questionnaire and the Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale). In every case masculinity showed significant positive correlations with self-esteem in both sexes, whereas the correlations with femininity were generally nil or slightly negative. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in monitoring performance.

220 male and 220 female undergraduates monitored a visual display for 1 hr. Although the results indicate females were poorer monitors, detecting 10% fewer signals and committing more false alarms, these sex differences accounted for only 4% of the variance of detection performance and less than 1% of the variance of the false alarm measure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measures of psychological masculinity and femininity: A comment on Gaddy, Glass, and Arnkoff.

C. D. Gaddy et al (see record 1983-30152-001) studied the relationship between women's sex-role identity and career decisions. The ANDRO scales of the Personality Research Form were used to assess sex-role identity. This use of measures of psychological masculinity and femininity, which is not uncommon, is questioned by the present author in view of recent advances in the field. Basically, the assumption that scales labeled "masculine" and "feminine" are reliable and valid measures of sex roles, sex-role identity, sex-role orientation, or sex-role beliefs and behavior is viewed as untenable. Researchers are urged to consider extant measures of masculinity and femininity as assessing the socially desirable personality traits of instrumentality (self-assertion) and expressiveness (nurturance/interpersonal concern), respectively. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences, androgyny, and approach responses to erotica: A new variation on the old volunteer problem.

In Study 1, 52 male and 41 female college students were ostensibly given a choice between a hard-core, "lustful" film and a soft-core, "loving" film. Consistent with predictions, results indicate relatively less approach of the lustful theme film by females. Study 2 was a field experiment in which 43 female and 41 male college students were contacted by telephone and asked to volunteer for an experiment involving erotica or one involving perception of geometric figures. Females were less likely than males to volunteer for a study involving erotica, regardless of whether it was described as hard- or soft-core in nature. Results for Ss who had completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory indicated that the effect was obtained only for sex-typed (vs androgynous) Ss. The possible influence of S self-selection on laboratory studies in this area is considered. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comment on Lubinski, Tellegen, and Butcher's "Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts."

Comments on the D. Lubinski et al (see record 1983-24773-001) study showing the relations between the short Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), Personality Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), and the Differential Personality Questionnaire. An alternate interpretation of their results is that the PAQ and the BSRI measure only 2 clusters of traits that can be labeled dominance and nurturance/warmth, so the data cannot be legitimately generalized to "masculinity" and "femininity." It is also countered that androgyny can be defined in ways other than as an intrinsically interactive concept. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex typing and androgyny in dyadic interaction: Individual differences in responsiveness to physical attractiveness.

In an expansion of the "behavioral confirmation" paradigm developed by M. Snyder et al (see record 1979-26014-001), 12 sex-typed and 12 androgynous (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) undergraduates of each sex engaged in getting-acquainted telephone conversations with allegedly attractive and unattractive members of their own and the opposite sex. Although females were more socially responsive than males, the sexes neither differed in their responsiveness to physical attractiveness nor in their responsiveness to cross-sex and same-sex interaction. As hypothesized, sex-typed individuals were rated by blind judges as being significantly more responsive toward allegedly attractive than unattractive partners. In contrast, androgynous men did not differentiate on the basis of physical attractiveness, and androgynous women actually led allegedly unattractive targets to be rated as more socially attractive than allegedly attractive targets, thereby disconfirming the physical attractiveness stereotype. Because cultural definitions of physical attractiveness are different for men and women, results are discussed in the context of recent evidence that sex-typed individuals have a particular readiness to encode and organize information in terms of gender. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in group task performance.

115 female and 118 male psychology students worked individually or in 3-person same-sex groups on a production task (requiring the generation of ideas) or on a discussion task (requiring group members to reach consensus concerning their evaluation of an issue). Because the content of the tasks was carefully selected not to favor the interests or expertise of one sex over the other, no sex differences were expected when Ss worked individually. Results show no gender differences in individual production performance. Only the creativity of the discussion problems was affected by gender; males working individually generated more creative solutions than did females. Consistent with prior research, males in groups generated more solutions to the production problems than did females; females in groups generated higher quality solutions to the discussion problem than did males. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, sex role orientation, and performance on Piaget's water-level task.

In a study with 8th-grade boys and girls, significant sex differences were found on measures of spatial ability (Card Rotations Test), water-level performance, and sex-role orientation (Bem Sex Role Inventory), but not field dependence (Group Embedded Figures Test). For boys, correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, and water-level performance were significant, while for girls they were not. In contrast, sex role orientation was significantly related to field dependence and water-level performance for girls but not for boys. Results suggest a sex difference in the basis for mastering the water-level task. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dyadic performance on two tasks as a function of task difficulty, work strategy, and member ability.

Replicated the manipulation of divided and shared labor used in previous studies by the present author (see PA, Vol 49:1265 and Vol 51:2005), while varying task difficulty and member ability in order to examine their combined effects upon dyadic performance on 2 tasks: analogies and crossword puzzles. Ss were 72 US Army enlisted men; 54 had a mean of 12.4 yrs of education, and 18 were technicians with a mean of 3.6 yrs of higher education. Dividing labor was found to be more efficient in terms of man-hours to a performance criterion, but sharing labor was more effective (i.e., it produced greater total performance). The efficiency effect was more pronounced on the analogies tasks, while the effectiveness findings were more pronounced on the crossword puzzles. Results occurred across task difficulty and group ability. The hypothesis that task difficulty would indicate the importance of ability redundancy on group performance was not supported. Differences in the performance curves for the 2 tasks are discussed in terms of the role of feedback regarding the adequacy of a response to the task. It is suggested that a distinction be made between task difficulty and task complementarity when considering the effects of ability redundancy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing differences as a function of item difficulty in verbal analogy performance.

Research based on componential models of analogical reasoning has typically been based on relatively easy items. Differences between individuals have been ascribed to execution efficiency of component processes within a single model. In the present study, we evaluated processing of verbal analogies by recording eye fixation patterns during problem solution. Problems represented a broad range of levels of difficulty. The findings on easier problems replicated previous work. On more difficult items, however, high verbal individuals tended to adapt their processing strategies to a much greater extent than did low verbal students. Skill differences were not attributable to initial encoding of the item, but rather to more thorough re-encoding of the stem and answers by the high verbal subjects. Current models cannot account for all individuals on all items when experimental items are more representative of aptitude test items. Instead, more complex models that incorporate both person and item characteristics need to be developed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender jeopardy: The effects of gender, assessed femininity and masculinity, and false success/failure feedback on performance in an experimental quiz game.

61 female and 62 male undergraduates assessed on the Femininity and Masculinity scales of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory answered multiple-choice questions in a 3-trial computerized quiz game. Ss could modify the experimental situation by choosing the questions' difficulty levels and, on Trials 2 and 3, choosing among stereotypically "feminine," "masculine," and "gender-neutral" question topic areas. Between Trials 2 and 3, Ss were given false success/failure feedback. Results indicate that females chose less-difficult questions and estimated their performance lower than did males even in trials in which they could choose feminine questions. In Trials 2 and 3, Ss' gender strongly influenced choices of feminine or masculine question topics. High-masculine males showed a greater preference for masculine questions, whereas high-masculine females showed a greater preference for neutral questions. Assessed masculinity also influenced topic choices in interaction with the success/failure manipulation. The effects of gender and assessed femininity and masculinity may best be understood in interaction with situational variables. The current paradigm is proposed as a means of carrying out more interactive kinds of research on personality–situation interactions. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)