The Work Preference Inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations.

The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) is designed to assess individual differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Both the college student and the working adult versions aim to capture the major elements of intrinsic motivation (self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest) and extrinsic motivation (concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, money or other tangible incentives, and constraint by others). The instrument is scored on two primary scales, each subdivided into 2 secondary scales. The WPI has meaningful factor structures, adequate internal consistency, good short-term test-retest reliability, and good longer term stability. Moreover, WPI scores are related in meaningful ways to other questionnaire and behavioral measures of motivation, as well as personality characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance and motivational deficits of helplessness: The role of motivational orientations.

Examined the hypothesis that the effect of failure feedback in producing learned helplessness would depend on the motivational orientation of a child. 53 4th–6th graders completed a scale of intrinsic vs extrinsic orientation in the classroom and were randomly assigned to success, failure, or control conditions, with the restriction that an approximately equal number of Ss with different motivational orientations were assigned to the different conditions. Extrinsically motivated Ss were predicted to exhibit performance decrement following a failure experience, whereas the opposite was predicted for intrinsically motivated Ss. Success feedback was predicted to enhance subsequent performance only for the intrinsic group. Following success, failure, or no feedback on an activity reflecting spatial skills (an incomplete picture task), Ss' performance on an activity tapping different skills (i.e., anagrams) provided by a 2nd experimenter served as the primary measure of helplessness. Ss' intrinsic motivation in performing the incomplete picture task, a similar task (embedded figures) and a dissimilar task (dots-to-dots) was also examined. Results support the predictions on both performance and intrinsic motivation measures. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for smoking cessation.

An intrinsic–extrinsic model of motivation for smoking cessation was evaluated with 2 samples (ns?=?1,217 and 151) of smokers who requested self-help materials for smoking cessation. Exploratory and confirmatory principal components analysis on a 36-item Reasons for Quitting (RFQ) scale supported the intrinsic–extrinsic motivation distinction. A 4-factor model, with 2 intrinsic dimensions (concerns about health and desire for self-control) and 2 extrinsic dimensions (immediate reinforcement and social influence), was defined by 20 of the 36 RFQ items. The 20-item measure demonstrated moderate to high levels of internal consistency and convergent and discriminant validity. Logistic regression analyses indicated that smokers with higher levels of intrinsic relative to extrinsic motivation were more likely to achieve abstinence from smoking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Review and meta-analysis.

Presents a meta-analytic literature review of the concepts of intrinsic (I) and extrinsic (E) religiousness in the empirical psychology of religion, focusing on I–E relationships. This review suggests that respondents with conservative theological orientations are more likely than others to display a negative correlation between intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness. In general, extrinsic religiousness is positively correlated with negatively evaluated characteristics and uncorrelated with measures of religious belief and commitment. Intrinsic religiousness is uncorrelated with negatively evaluated characteristics and positively correlated with measures of religiousness. A four-fold typology based on median splits of the 2 scales is of little use when the dependent variable is religious in nature, but with various nonreligious variables, it produces results that may correspond to findings of curvilinearity observed with other measures of religiousness. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic neuromodulation of motor circuits

Neuromodulation of motor circuits by extrinsic inputs provides enormous flexibility in the production of behavior. Recent work has shown that neurons intrinsic to central pattern-generating circuits can evoke neuromodulatory effects in addition to their neurotransmitting actions. Modulatory neurons often elicit a multitude of different effects attributable to actions at different receptors and/or through the release of co-transmitters. Differences in neuromodulation between species can account for differences in behavior. Modulation of neuromodulation may provide an additional level of flexibility to motor circuits.     

Intrinsic motivational drivers in medical networks from a neuroscientific perspective.

The relationship between motivation, performance, and incentives in the context of health care delivery is of high interest for the rising number of networks and other provider groups under pay-for-performance programs. Because recent literature suggests that intrinsic motivation plays a decisive role, this study analyzes the intrinsic motivational factors that drive physicians' behavior and performance by examining various motivational dimensions derived from neuroscientific approaches. The aim was to determine the existence of different motivational groups in a sample of 117 German network physicians. The motivational groups were established based on the individuals' combination of three neuroscientifically based personality traits. The cluster analysis identified four distinct clusters in the sample that allowed for the assumption that different motivational clusters of physicians do exist. Relating to the clusters, there also were clearly differing attitudes toward different forms of incentives. These results should help in finding more appropriate incentives, for example, in pay-for-performance schemes, in order to motivate network physicians and enhance their performance and effectiveness, and they partially explain the weak evidence of recent pay-for-performance evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The Work Preference Inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by T. M. Amabile et al (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1994[May], Vol 66[5], 950–967). Items 5 and 11 in Table 1 appeared in the incorrect column. The correct version of the table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1994-35880-001.) The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) is designed to assess individual differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Both the college student and the working adult versions aim to capture the major elements of intrinsic motivation (self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest) and extrinsic motivation (concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, money or other tangible incentives, and constraint by others). The instrument is scored on two primary scales, each subdivided into 2 secondary scales. The WPI has meaningful factor structures, adequate internal consistency, good short-term test-retest reliability, and good longer term stability. Moreover, WPI scores are related in meaningful ways to other questionnaire and behavioral measures of motivation, as well as personality characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study.

The purpose in this study was to examine the longitudinal relationships of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with reading literacy development. In particular, the authors (a) investigated reading amount as mediator between motivation and reading literacy and (b) probed for bidirectional relationships between reading motivation and reading literacy, controlling for previous reading literacy. A total of 740 students participated in a longitudinal assessment starting in Grade 3, with further points of measurement in Grades 4 and 6. Structural equation models with latent variables showed that the relationship between intrinsic reading motivation and later reading literacy was mediated by reading amount but not when previous reading literacy was included in the model. A bidirectional relationship was found between extrinsic reading motivation and reading literacy: Grade 3 reading literacy negatively predicted extrinsic reading motivation in Grade 4, which in turn negatively predicted reading literacy in Grade 6. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for change in cigarette smokers, marijuana smokers, and cocaine users.

Modified versions of the Reasons for Quitting (RFQ) Scale designed for use with smokers were included in 2 randomized trials testing treatment programs for marijuana and cocaine users. Three of the 4 motivation dimensions from the Tobacco RFQ were confirmed for marijuana and cocaine. These results provide preliminary support for the application of the motivation framework and RFQ to other substances. Differences in levels and type of motivation for abstaining from various substances suggest that motivational intervention strategies may need to be tailored to the substance. Further work is needed to better understand what constitutes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation across substances. Refinement of legal and other extrinsic motivators for abstaining from illicit substances is also needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic versus extrinsic cues as determinants of perceived product quality.

Tested a portion of J. C. Olson's cue model which hypothesizes that, other things equal, intrinsic cues (e.g., physical product differences) will be stronger determinants of perceived-quality judgments than will extrinsic cues (e.g., price or store image). 90 female undergraduates were randomly assigned to the conditions of a 2 * 3 * 3 (Price * Store Image * Hosiery Product Samples) analysis of variance with repeated measures on the intrinsic factor. Results support the hypothesis; omega-square values revealed that 73% of the total variance was due to intrinsic product sample differences. Additionally, the hypothesis that perceived worth would be more strongly related to stated purchase intentions than would perceived quality was supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic job motivations among different segments of the working population.

A selected cross-section of the working population (N = 692) was interviewed with respect to job motivations. The extent to which extrinsic or intrinsic job components were valued was found to be related to occupational level. At higher occupational levels, intrinsic job components (opportunity for self-expression, interest-value of work, etc.) were more valued. At lower occupational levels, extrinsic job components (pay, security, etc.) were more valued. No sex differences were found in the value placed on intrinsic or extrinsic factors in general. However, women placed a higher value on "good co-workers" than did men, while men placed a relatively higher value on the opportunity to use their talent or skill. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The self-concepts and motivational orientations of registered nurse master's degree students

The results of this investigation indicate that nurses enrolling in nursing master's degree programs are motivated to do so for reasons related to professional achievement and increasing their knowledge base. Many of the respondents indicated the desire to seek positions that reflect the more advanced practice roles in nursing, such as clinical nurse specialist, nurse practitioner, or nurse educator, upon completion of the degree. This is significant when considering that the investigation was conducted during a serious nursing shortage when much emphasis was placed on the recruitment and retention of staff nurses to work at the bedside (Fenner, 1987). The results of this investigation have implications for nursing educators and program administrators in master's degree programs. The seven motivational orientations underlying the reasons for returning to school should be considered when evaluating the ability of their programs to meet the needs and goals of their applicants. This might be accomplished by the exploration of the applicants' reasons for returning to school as well as their professional goals upon completion of the degree during the application process. An exit interview done on completion of the degree requirements could also be performed to determine if the program met the needs of the student.     

Temporal construal and time-dependent changes in preference.

Five studies tested the predictions of temporal construal theory and time-discounting theories regarding evaluation of near future and distant future options (outcomes, activities, products). The options had abstract or goal-relevant features (called high-level construal features) as well as more concrete or goal-irrelevant features (called low-level construal features). The studies varied the valence (positive vs. negative) and the type of valence (affective vs. cognitive) of the low-level and high-level construal features. The results show that the weight of high-level construal features, compared with the weight of low-level construal features, is greater in determining distant future preferences than near future preferences. The implications of the results for extant theories of time-dependent changes in preference are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of perceptual isolation and arousal on anxiety, complexity preference, and novelty preference in psychopathic and neurotic delinquents.

Subjected psychopathic and neurotic delinquents to perceptual isolation (PI) and arousal (A) and gave them pre- and postmeasures of novelty, complexity preference, and anxiety. The results showed that (1) there was a significant negative correlation between novelty preference and anxiety level and between complexity preference and anxiety level, (2) the psychopathic delinquents had significantly lower pretest anxiety and higher novelty and complexity preference scores, (3) after PI psychopathic delinquents increased their complexity preference scores significantly more; and (4) after A psychopathic delinquents did not shift scores, while neurotics significantly increased anxiety scores and decreased complexity preference scores. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional and motivational changes after bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus.

This study investigated motivational changes in a 44 year-old man (PJ) who developed considerable reduction in spontaneous activity and speech, flat affect, social withdrawal, loss of interest, inability to "feel," and lack of concern regarding his medical condition after bilateral, focal, anoxic lesions of the globus pallidus. PJ and 30 male controls performed a task designed to parse hedonic evaluation, or liking, from incentive motivation, or wanting. Affective stimuli were presented on a computer screen and subjects controlled viewing time by pressing keys. PJ's liking and wanting of unpleasant stimuli was similar to that of controls. In response to pleasant stimuli, PJ showed normal ratings of wanting and hedonic appreciation, but significantly reduced viewing time or made no responses. Active withdrawal from liked stimuli could constitute the basic mechanism underlying poor motivation and social withdrawal associated with globus pallidus damage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic control of hemopoietic stem cell numbers: mapping of a stem cell gene

We evaluated in vivo interactions between extrinsic (growth factor induced) and intrinsic (genetically determined) effectors of mouse primitive hemopoietic stem cell proliferation and numbers. Accordingly, stem cell frequency and cell cycle kinetics were assessed in eight strains of inbred mice using the cobblestone area-forming cell (CAFC) assay. A strong inverse correlation was observed between mouse lifespan and the number of autonomously cycling progenitors (CAFC day 7) in the femur. The population size of primitive stem cells (CAFC day 35) varied widely (up to sevenfold) among strains, unlike total CAFC day 7 numbers (cycling and quiescent), which were similar. Administration of the early acting cytokine flt-3 ligand to these strains resulted in activation of quiescent primitive stem cells exclusively in strains with high endogenous stem cell numbers (DBA and AKR), but was unrelated to strain-specific progenitor cell cycling. To map loci affecting stem cell frequency, we quantified stem cells in BXD recombinant inbred mice (offspring of C57BL/6 and DBA/2). The resulting strain distribution pattern showed high concordance with a marker that mapped to chromosome 18 (19 cM). Linkage with this genomic interval was associated with a likelihood of odds score of 3.3, surpassing the level required for significance. Interestingly, this segment, containing the EGR-1 gene, shows synteny with human chromosome 5q, a region strongly associated with various hematological malignancies. Our findings indicate that a gene mapping to this region is mutated in either C57BL/6 or DBA/2 (and possibly AKR) mice. These studies in apparently healthy mice may facilitate the identification of a gene implicated in human 5q-syndromes.     

Comparison of the stylistic complexity of the language of counselor and client across three theoretical orientations.

Using data generated from a computer-assisted language analysis system, and excerpts from 2 different time periods in each interview from the film series Three Approaches to Psychotherapy, the stylistic complexity of the language of counselor and client was compared. The analysis indicated that the counselors were significantly different from one another on 4 dependent measures of stylistic complexity: number of sentences, average sentence length, average block length, and average clause depth. The differences were commensurate with expectations derived from each theoretical approach. The client's stylistic complexity also differed significantly on the 4 measures across the 3 interviews. Moreover, by comparing the data within each interview from Time 1 and Time 2, evidence for concerted action was found. Results support and raise questions about the potency of interpersonal influence in counseling, the effect of the theoretical approach on the language by which counseling is conducted, and speculations about how counselor and client establish the ground rules for treatment. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis: Major theoretical orientations and issues.

Hypnosis is neither a theory nor a therapy, but a psychological process which can be explained using a variety of theoretical perspectives and which can be incorporated into various conceptual schools of therapy. Like the proverbial three men and elephant, different theories of hypnosis emphasize its different facets. Various theories of personality, development, and behavior have described and explained different aspects of hypnosis. Current issues in the literature on hypnosis include hypnosis and memory and cognitive processes, hypnotic susceptibility, interface between hypnosis and physiological parameters, and efficacy of hypnosis as a therapeutic tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic, extrinsic, and risk propensity factors in the work attitudes of teachers, educational administrators, and business managers.

Used the Borgatta, Ford, and Bohrnstedt Work Components Study Questionnaire to compare the job orientations of college-educated employees in educational and business organizations. The sample was composed of 432 teachers, 118 educational administrators, and 192 business managers. Multiple- and single-classification analysis of variance procedures were used to explore relationships and group differences across the attitudinal subscales. The hypothesis that the attitudes of educators differ from the attitudes of business managers toward intrinsic-extrinsic rewards and risk orientations was supported. Finally, a continuum of differing group profiles was proposed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)