Pseudomemory in hypnotized and task-motivated subjects.

Highly hypnotizable hypnotized (HYP; n?=?16) and task motivated (TM; n?=?13) Ss received pseudomemory suggestions (M. T. Orne, 1979). TM Ss reported being more awake and motivated than did HYP Ss and were more likely to pass the target noise suggestion. However, 69% of Ss in both conditions who passed the noise suggestion reported pseudomemories. Pseudomemory rate (69% for HYP Ss and 46% for TM Ss) was not reduced by informing Ss that they could distinguish reality and fantasy in a state of deep concentration. At final inquiry, after deep concentration, pseudomemories remained stable (75% for HYP Ss and 54% for TM Ss). As predicted, HYP Ss reported more unsuggested noises and more pseudomemories of novel noises than did TM Ss. Ss who reported pseudomemories were more confident in the accuracy of their memories than were Ss who reported that the suggested noises were imagined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social identification effects in group polarization.

Tested a model of group polarization derived from social identity theory, proposing that if group members conform to group norms, attitude polarization could occur only if group members perceive those norms as more extreme than they "objectively" are. In Exp I, 60 undergraduates perceived attitude-relevant information attributed to speakers who were categorized as a group as representing a more extreme position of the issue than when the same information was attributed to noncategorized individuals. Attitude polarization occurred when Ss believed the information came from their in-group. As predicted, this polarization resulted from Ss' adoption of the "extremitized" in-group norm. In Exp II, categorization was manipulated by focusing 42 Ss on their group performance or on their individual performance. When Ss were focused on their group membership, group norms were perceived as more extreme, and attitude polarization due to conformity to these extremitized norms occurred. When Ss were focused on their individual performance, no extremitization occurred, and attitudes shifted to a more neutral position on the issue. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 70(2) of Journal of Applied Psychology (see record 2008-10965-001). The third line was left out on p. 696, top right column. The entire section should read as follows: "Figure 1 compares the goals on T-1 with the mean goals chosen on T-2 by the same groups of subjects (i.e., grouped according to T-1 goals). On T-2 the mean goal levels of the seven original groups ranged from 4.8 to 12.9, in contrast with the T-1 range of 2 to 26."] 231 undergraduates were asked to list from 2–26 uses for common objects depending on the level of difficulty of the section (1 of 7) to which they were assigned. Ss were given a 1-min practice trial after task explanations and were then administered 2 experimental trials. Ss were told they were free to change their goals to a higher or lower level for the 2nd trial if they did not like the goal they had been assigned. Results show that Ss chose more difficult goals, if the assigned goals had been easy, and easier goals, if the assigned goals had been difficult. Ss were heavily influenced in their self-set goals by their previously assigned goals. The performance of Ss with impossible goals did not drop on the 2nd trial. A goal–expectancy interaction was found on the 2nd trial that was due to expectancy being positively related to performance at the higher but not the lower goal levels. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Liking for the group and the perceived merit of the group's behavior.

Paris of Ss were told, individually, that their partners were congenial and they would probably like them (high like), or the converse (low like). Ss were then separated and given an artillery gunnery problem in which they were to judge the accuracy of their "observer's" range estimates. Both Ss in each pair thought the other 3 was the "observer," which was actually a taped recording piped to each S. High like Ss judged their "observer's" estimates as more accurate than low like Ss. Ss who had been led to believe that they had "observers" of high proficiency in range estimates tended to judge the estimate as more accurate than when they had low proficiency "observers." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Procedure and outcome effects on reactions to adjudicated resolution of conflicts of interest.

Examined the effects of outcome on reactions to an adjudication procedure and the effects of procedures on reactions to an adjudication outcome. 111 male undergraduates were led to believe they had been charged with wrongdoing of which they knew they were innocent. The charge was tried, and the Ss outcomes were determined using procedures (adversary or nonadversary) high or low in perceived procedural justice. Ss were then told that they had been found innocent or guilty. Perceptions of the trial process were assessed either before or after the verdict was announced. After the verdict, additional questionnaires assessed perceptions of the verdict and overall perceptions of procedural and distributive fairness. Results show that disputants saw the adversary procedure as fairer than the nonadversary and that they saw the verdict as more fair and satisfying, and as more accurate and unbiased, when it followed an adversary trial. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prototype matching: A strategy for social decision making.

116 college students responded to a series of questionnaires while they were in the process of selecting housing from a choice of 7 available options for the coming fall. Questionnaires concerned their self-concepts, housing prototypes, preferences in housing, and goals in housing selection. Ss also completed a self-monitoring scale. Analyses of the self-to-prototype matching strategy suggest that most Ss preferred the type of housing for which their prototype of the "representative" resident most closely matches their self-perceptions. Individual differences in attention to self-fit in situations were observed. Among Ss who reported that they had interpersonal goals in the housing selection task, those who reported that many personality characteristics (both positive and negative) were untrue of self were more systematic in their use of the self-to-prototype matching rule; this was also true of low self-monitors. Neither pattern of individual differences were obtained for Ss with practical goals in the housing decision. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Direction of effect in socialization: A comparison of the parent's versus the child's behavior as determinants of disciplinary techniques.

40 mothers of 4-5 and 7-8 yr olds described the discipline they would use with their children in situations involving 12 misdemeanors. The situations were more likely to elicit the same discipline techniques from different Ss than was a given S to be consistent across the 12 situations. An S's reported discipline appeared to be determined more by what the child did than by some consistent child-rearing approach on the S's part. Two situations involving psychological harm to others elicited reasoning, whereas other kinds of misdemeanors were more likely to elicit some form of power assertion. Ss frequently said they would use multiple techniques in dealing with a misdemeanor, often power assertion in combination with reasoning, with the latter being more likely to follow the former. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of success and failure on cheating behavior.

Studied the relationship between cheating and previous success-failure experiences in 32 college students. Ss were informed that if they performed above average on a free-recall task they would receive bonus credit. Half of them were told their performance on a 1st test was poor and half were told that their initial performance was good. During a subsequent test, half of the words were left "carelessly" exposed so that Ss could copy them if they wished. Significant cheating occurred in the success but not in the failure condition, suggesting that failure following initial success may be more repugnant than failure following initial failure. Cheating elevated the number of recorded exposed words, while attention factors and/or arousal reduced recall of stored unexposed words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Career involvement of women in dual-career families: The influence of sex role identity.

Studied the influence of sex-role identity on the career involvement of 70 25–45 yr old professional women who were members of dual-career families that included young children. As predicted, Ss categorized as masculine on the Personality Research Form, ANDRO scales, were employed a significantly greater proportion of time after having children than Ss categorized as feminine. In addition, the more equalitarian the marriage, the more likely S was to continue her career participation after having children. Regardless of employment status and the equalitarianism of the marriage, Ss reported that they spent significantly more time alone with their children than their husbands did. Implications for various counseling situations are noted. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of perceived environmental conditions during cooperation on intergroup attraction.

Predicted that intergroup attraction would most likely increase when Ss felt the environmental conditions interfered with successful cooperation as opposed to fostering a successful effort. Two groups of Ss (256 undergraduates) competed for extra credit and then cooperated to achieve a pre-determined performance level. In half of the cases, Ss were told that the environmental conditions were ideal and should facilitate performance, and in the other cases, room conditions were poor and could be an inhibitor. Half the groups were told that their cooperative efforts were successful, while other groups learned that their joint efforts failed. Intergroup attraction increased when the cooperative efforts succeeded, regardless of environmental conditions. However, when these efforts failed, intergroup attraction increased only if Ss believed environmental conditions could have inhibited their performance. Ss were most critical of the room when cooperative efforts failed and they had been told the room might be an inhibitor. Significant correlations indicated that the more Ss disparaged the room, the more attracted they were to out-group members. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and counterfactual thinking.

Two studies examined the relation between self-esteem and counterfactual thinking (consideration of "might-have-been" alternatives to reality). Ss imagined themselves in scenarios with another actor that resulted in either success or failure. Ss then "undid" the outcome by altering events that preceded the outcome. Following success, high self-esteem (HSE) Ss were more likely than low self-esteem (LSE) Ss to mutate their own actions. Following failure, LSE Ss were more likely than HSE Ss to mutate their own actions. Also, the structure of counterfactuals was influenced by outcome valence but not by self-esteem: Subtractive structures (in which antecedents are removed) were elicited by success, whereas additive structures (in which antecedents are added) were elicited by failure. The importance of the self and individual differences in self-esteem to counterfactual thinking is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of person/environment fit to client perceptions and performance in a rehabilitation center.

Two comparison groups of 25 Ss each, Fit and Lack of Fit, were generated based on extent of similarity between their ideal and real perceptions of a rehabilitation center on the Community-Oriented Program Environment Scale (an index of person/environment fit). Although Lack of Fit Ss reported more problems in receiving center services, more dissatisfaction with services, and lower life satisfaction in the present, they were no more likely to drop out of their center program. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need for stimulation as a source of stress response to perceptual isolation.

The study was undertaken to see if Ss who had shown a greater stress reaction to perceptual isolation could be shown to have a greater "need" for stimulation than those who were not so stressed by isolation. Ss selected on the basis of their high or low reactions to the prior isolation experiment were tested in a second 3-hr perceptual isolation situation, only this time they were given the opportunity to make an operant response which would produce random visual or auditory stimulation depending on their choice. Those previously stressed by isolation made significantly more responses for visual and auditory reinforcement than the low-stress group. All Ss responded more for visual than for auditory reinforcement. (29 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of expecting to be liked on choice of associates.

This study investigated one of the factors which the authors felt influenced the strong tendency of people to choose to associate with others they perceive as similar to themselves, the fear of being disliked by dissimilar strangers. As predicted, it was found that if Ss felt it was important to talk with people who would like them, they more often chose to interact with similar than dissimilar people. A 2nd group of students, assured that all members of all groups would be told they were "not likable" and thus presumably concerned about making others like them, were also more anxious than control Ss to talk with similar people. If Ss were assured that all members of all groups would be told they were "likable" Ss were much more willing to associate with dissimilar groups of people than with similar ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neither "tentative" nor "fragmentary": Verdict preference of impaneled felony jurors as a function of attitude toward capital punishment.

Investigated the differential inclination to convict as well as the demographic and personality differences between impaneled felony jurors who varied in their approval of capital punishment (CP). Study 1 employed 282 jurors impaneled in state court in 1975–1976; Study 2 involved 346 impaneled in 1982–1983. Contingencies between demographic, personality, and juror experience variables and the Ss' attitude toward CP were examined. In Study 1, Ss who more strongly favored CP were marginally more likely to have favored convictions. This effect was due to the female subsample. In Study 2, Ss who more strongly favored CP were significantly more likely to favor convicting, particularly if the felony was capital or the evidence was weaker, as indicated by a longer jury deliberation. Ss who were more favorable toward CP were significantly more likely to be White, male, married, wealthier, Republican, politically conservative, and authoritarian. They reported reaching quicker verdicts, participating more in their jury deliberations, and being more persuasive on their juries. Findings suggest that attitudes toward CP indexes conviction proneness as well as membership in legally cognizable classes. The findings may raise Sixth and Fourteenth Amendment grounds for altering the method of death qualification of capital jurors as established in Witherspoon v. Illinois. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in peer and parent influence during adolescence: Longitudinal versus cross-sectional perspectives on smoking initiation.

3,819 6th–11th graders were administered a questionnaire to explore whether the influence of peers or parents on smoking transition differed with age or sex. 69.7% of these Ss completed the questionnaire 1 yr later. Ss were divided into smoking-status groups based on their responses to a self-report smoking measure. Overall findings indicate that both peer and parent influences were significantly predictive of subsequent transitions to higher levels of smoking. Initial onset of smoking among never-smokers was more likely for Ss with more smoking friends and parents, lower levels of parental support, and friends with lower expectations for the Ss' general and academic success. For girls, the transition from experimental to regular smoking was more likely if their friends had more positive attitudes toward their smoking and lower expectations for their general and academic success; for boys, the transition was more likely if their friends had higher expectations for their success. Contrary to previous findings, data indicate that both parents and peers exert a significant influence on adolescent behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of memory perspective on retrospective causal attributions.

Examined whether people's retrospective causal attributions might be mediated by the visual perspective from which events are recalled. In Study 1, pairs of Ss participated in "get-acquainted" converstions and made a series of attribution ratings for their performance. They returned 3 weeks later to rerate their performance on the same attribution scales and to indicate the perspective from which they remembered their earlier conversation. Ss reported either "observer" memories in which they could "see" themselves from the outside or "field" memories in which their field of view matched that of the original situation. Study 2 was identical to Study 1 with the exception that Ss' memory perspectives were manipulated via verbal instructions. In both experiments, conversations that were recalled from an observer's perspective were attributed more dispositionally. Discussion of these results focuses on how they further understanding of the contradictory findings (e.g., B. S. Moore et al; see record 1981-01280-001) reported in the literature on temporal shifts in attributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the cognitive basis of subjective well-being analysis: What do individuals have to say about it?

Examined the perceived importance of comparison and causal attribution for well-being in the process of subjective well-being (SWB) evaluation. After having reporting their SWB level, 240 Ss from 2 age groups (19–27 yr old undergraduates and their 40–78 yr old parents) were asked to indicate the extent to which they based their SWB judgment on different types of comparisons (social, temporal, and telic). Ss also indicated if they perceived various causes (internal and external) to be responsible for their current level of well-being. Results indicate that social comparisons were not perceived as being important in SWB evaluation. Telic comparison was reported to be used more than other comparison types by young adults, but related negatively to their SWB level. Ss attributed their well-being more to internal than external causes. However, the more strongly they could ascertain various causes (internal and external) to explain their SWB, the higher their SWB level was. It is suggested that individuals' accounts of the processes involved in their personal well-being evaluation could be a useful approach to understand and promote the experience of happiness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)