Mechanical behavior of a fine-grained duplex γ-TiAl alloy

The mechanical behavior of a fine-grained duplex γ-TiAl alloy was studied in compression at strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 2000 s⁻¹ and temperatures from −196 °C to 1200 °C. The temperature dependence of the yield and flow stresses is found to depend on the strain rate. At strain rates of 0.001 and 0.1 s⁻¹, the yield stress decreases as the temperature increases, with a plateau between 600 °C and 800 °C. At strain rates of 35 and 2000 s⁻¹, the yield stress exhibits a positive temperature dependence at temperatures above 600 °C; however, postyield flow stresses exhibit a reduced temperature dependency. The work-hardening rate decreases dramatically with temperature at low and high temperatures, with a plateau occurring at intermediate temperatures for all strain rates. The workhardening-rate plateau is seen to extend to higher temperatures as the strain rate increases. The strain-rate sensitivity at strain rates of 0.1 s⁻¹ and greater is lower than 0.1, although it increases slightly with temperature. At 0.001 s⁻¹, the strain-rate sensitivity increases dramatically at high temperatures (equal to 4.5 at 1200 °C). The anomalous (positive) temperature dependence of the yield stress at high strain rates (>1 s⁻¹) and high temperatures (>600 °C) is explained via a dislocation-jog pinning mechanism. The negative temperature dependence of the yield stress at low strain rates (<1 s⁻¹) and high temperatures (>900 °C) is thought to be due to a thermally activated dislocation-jog climb process in the grain interiors and/or deformation and recovery processes at/near grain boundaries. The decreased anomalous temperature dependence of the flow stress at high strain rates and high temperatures is ascribed to dynamic recovery promoted by adiabatic heating.     

Mechanical behavior of a fine-grained duplex γ-TiAl alloy

The mechanical behavior of a fine-grained duplex γ-TiAl alloy was studied in compression at strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 2000 s⁻¹ and temperatures from −196°C to 1200°C. The temperature dependence of the yield and flow stresses is found to depend on the strain rate. At strain rates of 0.001 and 0.1 s⁻¹, the yield stress decreases as the temperature increases, with a plateau between 600°C and 800°C. At strain rates of 35 and 2000 s⁻¹, the yield stress exhibits a positive temperature dependence at temperatures above 600°C; however, postyield flow stresses exhibit a reduced temperature dependency. The work-hardening rate decreases dramatically with temperature at low and high temperatures, with a plateau occurring at intermediate temperatures for all strain rates. The work-hardening-rate plateau is seen to extend to higher temperatures as the strain rate increases. The strain-rate sensitivity at strain rates of 0.1 s⁻¹ and greater is lower than 0.1, although it increases slightly with temperature. At 0.001 s⁻¹, the strain-rate sensitivity increases dramatically at high temperatures (equal to 4.5 at 1200°C). The anomalous (positive) temperature dependence of the yield stress at high strain rates (>1 s⁻¹) and high temperatures (>600°C) is explained via a dislocation-jog pinning mechanism. The negative temperature dependence of the yield stress at low strain rates (<1 s⁻¹) and high temperatures (>900°C) is though to be due to a thermally activated dislocation-jog climb process in the grain interiors and/or deformation and recovery processes at/near grain boundaries. The decreased anomalous temperature dependence of the flow stress at high strain rates and high temperatures is ascribed to dynamic recovery promoted by adiabatic heating. Z. JIN, formerly Technical Staff Member, Materials Science and Technology Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory     

Plastic-flow and microstructure evolution during hot deformation of a gamma titanium aluminide alloy

The hot workability of a near gamma titanium aluminide alloy, Ti-49.5Al-2.5Nb-1.1Mn, was assessed in both the cast and the wrought conditions through a series of tension tests conducted over a wide range of strain rates (10⁻⁴ to 10⁰ s⁻¹) and temperatures (850 °C to 1377 °C). Tensile flow curves for both materials exhibited sharp peaks at low strain levels followed by pronounced necking and flow localization at high strain levels. A phenomenological analysis of the strain rate and temperature dependence of the peak stress data yielded an average value of the strain rate sensitivity equal to 0.21 and an apparent activation energy of ∼411 kJ/mol. At low strain rates, the tensile ductility displayed a maximum at ∼ 1050 °C to 1150 °C, whereas at high strain rates, a sharp transition from a brittle behavior at low temperatures to a ductile behavior at high temperatures was noticed. Dynamic recrystallization of the gamma phase was the major softening mechanism controlling the growth and coalescence of cavities and wedge cracks in specimens deformed at strain rates of 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻² s⁻¹ and temperatures varying from 950 °C to 1250 °C. The dynamically recrystallized grain size followed a power-law relationship with the Zener-Hollomon parameter. Deformation at temperatures higher than 1270 °C led to the formation of randomly oriented alpha laths within the gamma grains at low strain levels followed by their reorientation and evolution into fibrous structures containing γ + α phases, resulting in excellent ductility even at high strain rates.     

Effect of the strain rate on the mechanical properties of metalloceramic molybdenum in the ductile-brittle transition temperature range

Metalloceramic molybdenum is tested in the temperature range from −100 to +350°C and the strain rate range from 3.4 × 10⁻³ to 4 × 10³ s⁻¹. This wide strain rate range, which was used for the first time to study molybdenum, makes it possible to find the laws of changes in its strength and deformation characteristics. It is found that the ductile-brittle transition temperature increases from −90 to +250°C in this strain rate range, the dependences of the lower and upper transition temperatures on the strain rate intersect at $ \dot \varepsilon $ \dot \varepsilon = 10^5.7 s⁻¹, and the effect of the test temperature on the yield strength weakens with increasing strain rate and disappears at $ \dot \varepsilon $ \dot \varepsilon = 10^5.9 s⁻¹. The closeness of these two strain rates calculated using two different approximations suggests the presence of a certain limiting critical strain rate beginning from which molybdenum is in a brittle state.     

Hot deformation mechanisms in a powder metallurgy nickel-base superalloy IN 625

The hot working behavior of the nickel-base superalloy IN 625 produced by hot extrusion of a powder metallurgy (P/M) compact has been studied by compression testing in the temperature range 900 °C to 1200 °C and true strain rate range 0.001 to 100 s⁻¹. At strain rates less than about 0.1 s⁻¹, the stress-strain curves exhibited near steady-state behavior, while at higher strain rates, the flow stress reached a peak before flow softening occurred. The processing maps developed on the basis of the temperature and strain rate and strain dependence of the flow stress exhibited three domains. (1) The first domain occurs at lower strain rates (<0.01 s⁻¹) and temperatures higher than about 1050 °C. The peak efficiency and the temperature at which it occurs have increased with strain. The microstructure of the specimen deformed in this domain exhibited extensive wedge cracking. (2) The second domain occurs in the intermediate range of strain rates (0.01 to 0.1 s⁻¹) and temperatures lower than 1050 °C, and in this domain, microstructural observations indicated dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of γ containing δ precipitates and carbide particles resulting in a fine-grained structure. (3) The third domain occurs at higher strain rates (> 10 s⁻¹) and tempe ratures above 1050 °C, with a peak efficiency of about 42 pct occurring at 1150 °C and 100 s⁻¹. Microstructural observations in this domain revealed features such as irregular grain boundaries and grain interiors nearly free from annealing twins, which are typical of DRX of homogeneous γ phase. The instability map revealed that flow instability occurs at strain rates above 1 s⁻¹ and temperatures below 1050 °C, and this is manifested as intense adiabatic shear bands. These results suggest that bulk metal working of this material may be carried out in the high strain rate domain where DRX of homogeneous γ occurs. On the other hand, for achieving a fine-grained product, finishing operations may be done in the intermediate strain rate domain. The wedge cracking domain and the regime of instability must be totally avoided for achieving defectfree products.     

The plastic deformation of anα-Ti alloy and its thermal activation processvs effective stress

This article presents research on the tensile yield stress of anα-Ti alloy at temperatures from 373 to 77 K and strain rates from 10⁻⁴ to 10². The yield stress increases linearly with logarithmic strain rate. An analysis has been made on activation energy with the variation of effective stress which was obtained either by lowering temperature at constant strain rates or by increasing strain rates at constant temperatures. Activation energy is a function of temperature. It does not change when effective stress is increased by increasing strain rates but decreases with lowering temperature and is not influenced by strain rate.     

Dynamic Strain Aging in New Generation Cr-Mo-V Steel for Reactor Pressure Vessel Applications

A new generation nuclear reactor pressure vessel steel (CrMoV type) having compositional similarities with thick section 3Cr-Mo class of low alloy steels and adapted for nuclear applications was investigated for various manifestations of dynamic strain aging (DSA) using uniaxial tests. The steel investigated herein has undergone quenched and tempered treatment such that a tempered bainite microstructure with Cr-rich carbides was formed. The scope of the uniaxial experiments included tensile tests over a temperature range of 298 K to 873 K (25 °C to 600 °C) at two strain rates (10⁻³ and 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹), as well as suitably designed transient strain rate change tests. The flow behavior displayed serrated flow, negative strain rate sensitivity, plateau behavior of yield, negative temperature (T), and strain rate ( [(e)\dot] ) \left( {\dot{\varepsilon }} \right) dependence of flow stress over the temperature range of 523 K to 673 K (250 °C to 400 °C) and strain rate range of 5 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 3 × 10⁻⁶ s⁻¹, respectively. While these trends attested to the presence of DSA, a lack of work hardening and near negligible impairment of ductility point to the fact that manifestations of embrittling features of DSA were significantly enervated in the new generation pressure vessel steel. In order to provide a mechanistic understanding of these unique combinations of manifestations of DSA in the steel, a new approach for evaluation of responsible solutes from strain rate change tests was adopted. From these experiments and calculation of activation energy by application of vacancy-based models, the solutes responsible for DSA were identified as carbon/nitrogen. The lack of embrittling features of DSA in the steel was rationalized as being due to the beneficial effects arising from the presence of dynamic recovery effects, presence of alloy carbides in the tempered bainitic structure, and formation of solute clusters, all of which hinder the possibilities for strong aging of dislocations.     

Effect of strain rate on the flow stress of three liquid phase sintered tungsten alloys

Stress/strain tests were carried out in compression on three liquid phase sintered tungsten alloys, with tungsten contents of 90, 95, and 97.4 wt pct, in the strain rate range 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 10³ s⁻¹. Each alloy shows a gradual increase of flow stress with strain rate, and evidence of work softening is observed when the strain rate is of the order of 2 s⁻¹ or greater. The work softening effect is shown to result from a temperature rise due to the plastic deformation and partly masks the strain rate effect at strains greater than 0.1. The 97.4 pct tungsten alloy also shows variable behavior due to cracking associated with the presence of a brittle phase at the tungsten particle/matrix interface.     

The influence of strain rate and porosity on the deformation and fracture of titanium and nickel

The influence of strain rate on the tensile deformation and fracture behavior of powder-fabricated titanium and nickel containing porosity has been investigated. Measurements of uniform strain, local fracture strains, and elongations to failure show that, over the range of strain rates from 10⁻⁴ to 10² s⁻¹, there is little or no effect of the strain rate on the fracture behavior of these materials at any of the porosity levels studied. In contrast, increasing porosity causes significant decreases in the yield stress, strain-hardening exponent, and ductility; these effects are more pronounced in the titanium than in the nickel. The porosity-induced loss of ductility can be understood in terms of the combined effects of enhanced geometric softening and shear localization due to a network of imperfections introduced into the materials by the presence of porosity. Secondary effects due to hydrogen embrittlement and thermal gradients forming during deformation are also noted.     

Evaluation of activation energy for dynamic strain aging process in 316L(N)/316(N) SS weld joints

Type 316 L(N) Stainless Steel (SS) is being currently used as a structural material for various components of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). The possibility of using 316 L(N) electrodes for fabrication of 316 L(N) welding joints is being critically examined. This paper discusses about the evaluation of activation energy for Dynamic Strain Aging (DSA) process in 316L(N)/316(N) SS Weld Joints. The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process was used for the root pass and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process was used for the remaining passes. Tensile tests have been conducted in the wide temperature range from room temperature to 1023 K at a strain rate of 3 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹. Yield stress showed a continuous decrease with increasing temperature, with a plateau being observed between 823 and 923 K. A minima in elongation was also observed in this temperature range. These two properties being manifestations of dynamic strain aging, further tests at different strain rates (3 × 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ to 3 × 10⁻² s⁻¹) were conducted in this temperature range. Detailed analyses of the results were carried out and the solute responsible for dynamic strain aging was identified to be substitutional chromium. Post test analysis of fracture surfaces and deformation substructures were correlated with the changes in tensile properties at different testing temperatures.     

Role of temperature and strain rate on the hydrogen-induced intergranular rupture in alloy 600

Tensile tests were conducted at various temperatures (77 to 550 K) and strain rates (10⁻⁵ to 10⁻¹ s⁻¹) in order to study the effects of hydrogen on the ductility loss and the intergranular fracture of hydrogen-charged (32 wt ppm) tensile specimens of alloy 600. The H-induced intergranular cracking was shown to require H segregation to grain boundaries (GBs) during plastic deformation. The concordance between the temperature/strain rate domains, where H-induced intergranular rupture of alloy 600 is observed and those of H transport by dislocations, is in favor of a major influence of this mechanism of H transport on the intergranular rupture of H-charged alloy 600 in the 180 to 500 K temperature range. The possible contribution of this mechanism to intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of alloy 600 in the pressurized water reactor (PWR) environment is discussed.     

Low cycle fatigue behavior of polycrystalline Ni3Al alloys at ambient and elevated temperatures

The low cycle fatigue (LCF) resistance of polycrystalline Ni₃Al has been evaluated at ambient, intermediate (300 °C), and elevated (600 °C) temperatures using strain rates of 10⁻²/s and 10⁻⁴/s. Testing was conducted on a binary and a Cr-containing alloy of similar stoichiometry and B content (hypostoichiometric, 200 wppm B). Test results were combined with electron microscope investigations in order to evaluate microstructural changes during LCF. At ambient and intermediate temperatures, the cyclic constitutive response of both alloys was similar, and the LCF behavior was virtually rate independent. Under these conditions, the alloys rapidly hardened and then gradually softened for the remainder of the life. Initial hardening resulted from the accumulation of dislocation debris within the deformed microstructure, whereas softening was related to localized disordering. For these experimental conditions, crack initiation resulted within persistent slip bands (PSBs). At the elevated temperature, diffusion-assisted deformation resulted in a rate-dependent constitutive response and crack-initiation characteristics. At the high strain rate (10⁻²/s), continuous cyclic hardening resulted from the accumulation of dislocation debris. At the low strain rate (10⁻⁴/s), the diffusion of dislocation debris to grain boundaries resulted in cyclic softening. The elevated temperature LCF resistance was determined by the effect of the constitutive response on the driving force for environmental embrittlement. Chromium additions were observed to enhance LCF performance only under conditions where crack initiation was environmentally driven. Formerly Postdoctoral Research Fellow, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA     

Effect of strain rate on the high-temperature low-cycle fatigue properties of a nimonic PE-16 superalloy

Strain-rate effects on the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of a NIMONIC PE-16 superalloy have been evaluated in the temperature range of 523 to 923 K. Total-strain-controlled fatigue tests were performed at a strain amplitude of ±0.6 pct on samples possessing two different prior microstructures: microstructure A, in the solution-annealed condition (free of γ′ and carbides); and microstructure B, in a double-aged condition with γ′ of 18-nm diameter and M₂₃C₆ carbides. The cyclic stress response behavior of the alloy was found to depend on the prior microstructure, testing temperature, and strain rate. A softening regime was found to be associated with shearing of ordered γ′ that were either formed during testing or present in the prior microstructure. Various manifestations of dynamic strain aging (DSA) included negative strain rate-stress response, serrations on the stress-strain hysteresis loops, and increased work-hardening rate. The calculated activation energy matched well with that for self-diffusion of Al and Ti in the matrix. Fatigue life increased with an increase in strain rate from 3 × 10^-5 to 3 × 10^-3 s^-1, but decreased with further increases in strain rate. At 723 and 823 K and low strain rates, DSA influenced the deformation and fracture behavior of the alloy. Dynamic strain aging increased the strain localization in planar slip bands, and impingement of these bands caused internal grain-boundary cracks and reduced fatigue life. However, at 923 K and low strain rates, fatigue crack initiation and propagation were accelerated by high-temperature oxidation, and the reduced fatigue life was attributed to oxidation-fatigue interaction. Fatigue life was maximum at the intermediate strain rates, where strain localization was lower. Strain localization as a function of strain rate and temperature was quantified by optical and scanning electron microscopy and correlated with fatigue life.     

Effects of temperature and strain rate on tensile properties and activation energy for dynamic strain aging in alloy 625

Alloy 625 ammonia cracker tubes were service exposed for 60,000 hours at 873 K. These were then subjected to a solution-annealing treatment at 1473 K for 0.5 hours. The effects of temperature and strain rate on the tensile properties of the solution-annealed alloy were examined in the temperature range of 300 to 1023 K, employing the strain rates in the range of 3×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ to 3×10⁻³ s⁻¹. At intermediate temperatures (523 to 923 K), various manifestations of dynamic strain aging (DSA) such as serrated flow, peaks, and plateaus in the variations of yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and work-hardening rate with temperature were observed. The activation energy for serrated flow (Q) was determined by employing various methodologies for T<823 K, where a normal Portevien-Le Chatelier effect (PLE) was observed. The value of Q was found to be independent of the method employed. The average Q value of 98 kJ/mol was found to be in agreement with that for Mo migration in a Ni matrix. At elevated temperatures (T≥823 K), type-C serrations and an inverse PLE was noticed. The decrease in uniform elongation beyond 873 K for 3×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ and 3×10⁻³ s⁻¹ and beyond 923 K for 3×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ strain rates seen in this alloy has been ascribed to reduction in ductility due to precipitation of carbides and δ phase on the grain boundaries.     

The deformation of silicon at high temperatures and strain rates

Polycrystalline and 〈100〉 single crystalline semiconductor grade silicon samples have been subjected to uniaxial compression at strain rates from 10⁻⁵ to 12 s⁻¹ at temperatures ranging from 1100 to 1380 °C. Both intrinsic and p-type polycrystalline material and p-type single crystalline material were tested. Except at the highest temperature and lowest strain rate, no steady state deformation was observed for the polycrystalline material. In all other cases strain hardening was observed which increased with increasing strain rates. The polycrystalline material could be compressed by as much as 50 pct at 1380 °C and a strain rate of 7 s⁻¹ without cracking. An axial stress of approximately 170 MPa produces a strain rate of 5 s⁻¹ at 1380 °C. The stress necessary to produce a given strain rate increases rapidly with decreasing temperature while the ductility rapidly decreases. A preliminary forming limit diagram has also been determined for the polycrystalline material at 1380 °C. The deformation rate-controlling process in the polycrystalline material at high stresses could be the production of vacancies on jogged dislocations. Formerly with the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania     

Effect of temperature and strain rate on the compressive flow of aluminum composites containing submicron alumina particles

Uniaxial compression tests were conducted on aluminum composites containing 34 and 37 vol pct submicron alumina particles, to study the effect of temperature and strain rate on their flow stress. For temperatures between 25 °C and 600 °C and strain rates between 10⁻³ and 1 s⁻¹, the flow stress of the composites is significantly higher than that of unreinforced aluminum tested under similar conditions. This can be attributed to direct strengthening of the composites due to load sharing between the particles and the matrix, and an enhanced in-situ matrix flow stress resulting from a particle-induced increase in dislocation density. The composites, however, exhibit the same stress dependence on temperature and strain rate as unreinforced aluminum, indicating a common hardening mechanism, i.e., forest dislocation interactions. The forest hardening present under the explored testing conditions masks the effects of direct dispersion strengthening operative at lower deformation rates in these materials.     

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Propagating Deformation Bands in AA5182 Alloy at Room Temperature

The spatial and temporal characteristics of propagating deformation bands in the Al-Mg alloy AA5182 in O temper were studied experimentally at room temperature. Tensile tests were carried out on flat specimens at strain rates in the range from 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻¹ s⁻¹. Digital image correlation (DIC) and digital infrared thermography (DIT) were applied to monitor the propagating bands. It was found that the material exhibits a sharp yield point, and Lüders bands were seen at all the strain rates. Jerky flow took place all along the Lüders plateau. It thus seems that the Portevin–Le Chatelier (PLC) effect starts at incipient yielding and that there is no critical strain. At the end of the Lüders plateau, PLC bands immediately started to propagate back and forth along the gage section of the specimen. The work hardening of the material decreased consistently with increasing strain rate, while the flow stress on the Lüders plateau was rather unaffected by the strain rate. This indicates that the dynamic strain aging (DSA) mainly affects the strength of the interaction between mobile and forest dislocations. The strain to necking was found to decrease gradually with strain rate for this alloy, which is consistent with the lower work-hardening rate at the higher strain rates.     

Microstructural Evolution and Flow Analysis during Hot Working of a Fe-Ni-Cr Superaustenitic Stainless Steel

Hot compression tests were conducted in a temperature range of 1173 K to 1323 K (900 °C to 1050 °C) and strain rates of 0.001 seconds⁻¹ to 1 second⁻¹ to investigate the hot deformation behavior of the austenitic stainless steel type 1.4563. The results showed that hot deformation at low temperatures, i.e., 1173 K to 1223 K (900 °C to 950°C), and at low and medium strain rates, i.e., 0.001 seconds⁻¹ to 0.1 seconds⁻¹, results in the dynamic formation of worm-like precipitates on existing grain boundaries. This in turn led to the restriction or even inhibition of dynamic recrystallization. However, at higher temperatures and strain rates when either the time frame for dynamic precipitation was too short or the driving force was low, dynamic recrystallization occurred readily. Furthermore, at low strain rates and high temperatures, there was no sign of particles, but the interactions between solute atoms and mobile dislocations made the flow curves serrated. The strain rate sensitivity was determined and found to change from 0.1 to 0.16 for a temperature increase from 1173 K to 1323 K (900 °C to 1050 °C). The variations of mean flow stress with strain rate and temperature were analyzed. The calculated apparent activation energy for the material was approximately 406 kJ/mol. The hyperbolic sine function correlated the Zener-Hollomon parameter and flow stress successfully at intermediate stress levels. However, at low levels of flow stress a power-law equation and at high stresses an exponential equation well fitted the experimental data.     

Hot Deformation Characteristics of Functionally Graded Steels Produced by Electroslag Remelting

In this work, a hot compression test was carried out at 1173 K to 1473 K (900°C to 1200 °C), with a strain rate of 0.01 to 1 s⁻¹ up to ~50 pct height reduction on functionally graded steel (FGS) specimens comprised of ferritic, bainitic, austenitic, and martensitic layers (αβγMγ). The stress-strain curves are strongly dependent on temperature and strain rate. Compressive flow stress varied from 40 to 105 MPa depending on the applied temperature and strain rates. Variation in steady-state flow stress with temperature and strain rates was studied. The strain-rate-sensitivity exponent (m) and deformation activation energy (Q) for the αβγMγ composite under studied condition were 0.106 and 354.8 KJ mol⁻¹, respectively, which are within the values of boundary layers of ferrite (304.9 KJ mol⁻¹) and austenite (454.8 KJ mol⁻¹) layers. Given the alternative microstructure of the αβγMγ FGS, a range of deformation mechanisms from dynamic recovery to dynamic recrystallization maybe prevails, where the intensity of each mechanism depends on temperature and strain rates. In accordance with the experimental results, an empirical power-law equation was developed over the range of temperatures and strain rates investigated. The equation accurately describes temperature and strain-rate dependence of the flow stress.