Motivation and competence as determinants of young children's reward allocation.

Young children's failure to use the rule of equity in situations involving reward allocation has led researchers to conclude that they lack the requisite level of cognitive sophistication. The present study examined the effects of allocation instructions and self-interest on the use of equity by 126 preschool children. Ss served either as workers on a task with another (fictitious) child or as "supervisors" for 2 other (fictitious) children. They were given allocation instructions in which the social demand for equity was or was not explicitly stated. When Ss were given allocation instructions with no explicit demand, there was no evidence of equity. When the demand for equity was explicit and self-interest was removed by assigning the child the role of supervisor, all Ss used equity in allocating rewards. In view of the demonstrated ability of preschoolers to apply equity, developmental differences in the motivational and social determinants of its use are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can the promise of reward increase creativity?

Two experiments, involving 436 preadolescent schoolchildren, investigated how the explicitness of promised reward affects creativity. In the first study, the nonspecific promise of reward increased the creativity of picture drawing if children had previously received divergent-thinking training (generating novel uses for physical objects). In the second study, promised reward increased the creativity of children's drawings if current task instructions clarified the necessity of creative performance. Promised reward evidently increases creativity if there is currently, or was previously, an explicit positive relationship between creativity and reward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of youth authorship on the appraisal of paintings.

Authorship of a painting affects the evaluation of the artwork. In particular, prestigious authorship predicts an evaluation bias in favor of eminent artists. In the recent years, however, the art appreciation movement has focused attention on youth art. This reverse prestige bias effect raises a number of concerns about the virtue of art and the art evaluation bias. In this study, we asked what specific aspects of children's artworks contribute to the accentuated aesthetic response. Recent theories suggest that the final evaluation of aesthetics is emotionally driven. We proposed that youth authorship would elicit a stronger positive emotional response from the viewers than prestige authorship. In 4 experiments, we examined the effects of prestigious authorship and emotional authorship on aesthetic, creativity, and proficiency evaluations. Experiment 1 was a survey of expected qualities of artworks by artists of various backgrounds (e.g., famous artists, youth, or athletes). The results served as baselines for discussion in subsequent experiments. In Experiment 2, participants judged artworks presumably produced by famous artists or children. We predicted higher ratings for youth. In Experiment 3, participants judged artworks presumably produced by famous artists or athletes. Assuming that athletes do not receive the same compassion as children, we predicted the ratings to be higher for the famous artists. To emphasize the role of compassion, participants in Experiment 4 judged artworks presumably produced by privileged or underprivileged youth artists. Inconsistent with the emotional hypothesis, artistic preference was equal in these two groups. Alternative explanations are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of mood on self-appraisal of health status.

Investigated the effects of temporary mood on the self-perception of health status in 2 experiments, using 44 and 90 undergraduates, respectively. In Exp I, Ss viewed 1 of 2 videotapes designed to induce either positive or negative mood and were asked to imagine an illness-related scenario and to provide judgments concerning their health status. Positive-induction Ss judged their health more favorably than negative-induction Ss. In Exp II, Ss viewed 1 of 2 mood induction tapes, and some Ss were asked to imagine either an illness-related scenario or illness-unrelated scenario. A 3rd group was given no instructions. Data are consistent with the notion that negative mood can affect subjective appraisals of health by increasing the accessibility of illness-related memories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation and creativity: Effects of motivational orientation on creative writers.

72 members of the college community who identified themselves as actively involved in creative writing participated in individual laboratory sessions, in which they were asked to write 2 brief poems, to investigate the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation is conducive to creativity and extrinsic motivation is detrimental. In the present study, intrinsic motivation was defined as resulting from an S's interest in and enjoyment of writing for its own sake, while extrinsic motivation was defined as resulting from the external things obtained by writing (e.g., rewards, approval). Ss were divided into approximately equal groups that were designated as intrinsic-orientation, extrinsic-orientation, and control conditions. Before writing the 2nd poem, Ss in the intrinsic-orientation condition completed a questionnaire on intrinsic reasons for being involved in writing, and Ss in the extrinsic-orientation condition completed a questionnaire on extrinsic reasons. Ss in the control condition were not given a questionnaire on reasons for writing. Results indicate that, although there were no initial differences between conditions on prior involvement in writing or on creativity of the 1st poems written, there were significant differences in the creativity of the poems written after the experimental manipulations. Poems written under an extrinsic orientation were significantly less creative than those written in the other 2 conditions. Implications for social-psychological and individual-difference conceptions of creativity are discussed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of performance on the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale.

Data from 90 female camp counselor job applicants in 2 studies show that Rotter's scale may be easily faked in an actual employment situation when Ss are given either minimal information concerning job responsibilities or explicit instructions to alter their responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life events and personal causation: Some relationships with satisfaction and distress.

Hypothesized that Ss who engaged in more positive origin activities would rate their lives as more satisfying than Ss who engaged in fewer such activities, and both would be more satisfied than control Ss. After completing a series of questionnaires including a life-event inventory, 3 groups of college students were selected from a pool of 141 and given instructions either to (a) engage in 12 activities from a self-selected list of pleasurable activities, (b) engage in 2 activities from that list, or (c) return after 1 mo for retesting only. Ss were then given a pleasantness-of-events test, an event-frequency test, the Perceived Quality of Life Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and a 54-item Symptom Check List. Covariance analyses revealed that Ss instructed to engage in either 2 or 12 pleasurable activities reported greater pleasantness and a higher quality of life than controls; there were no differences between groups on reports of psychiatric distress. Prior negative life change was treated as a factor in the design and was found to interact with the activity instructions: Ss reporting many prior negative changes exhibited less psychiatric distress along with greater pleasantness when instructed to engage in 12 activities rather than 2 or none. Results suggest that pleasant activities increase positive aspects of well-being in general, but may reduce distress only for people experiencing considerable life stress. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative efficacy of self-reward, self-punishment, and self-monitoring techniques for weight loss.

Randomly assigned 48 female and 5 male obese adults to 5 groups: (a) self-reward, (b) self-punishment, (c) self-reward and self-punishment, (d) self-monitoring, and (e) information control. All Ss were given information on effective stimulus control techniques for weight loss. Self-monitoring Ss were asked to weigh in twice per week for 4 wks and to record their daily weight and eating habits. Self-reward and self-punishment Ss, in addition to receiving self-monitoring instructions, were asked to award or fine themselves a portion of their deposit contingent on changes in their weight and eating habits. After 4 wks of treatment, self-reward Ss lost significantly more weight than either self-monitoring or control Ss. At a 4-mo follow-up, Ss who had received self-reward instructions continued to show greater improvement than either the self-punishment or control Ss. Findings provide a preliminary indication that self-reward strategies are superior to self-punitive and self-recording strategies in the modification of at least some habit patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional demands and ratings of overt and hidden pain during hypnotic analgesia.

16 highly hypnotizable (Carlton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) undergraduates rated the intensity of cold pressor pain during a baseline trial and again during 3 hypnotic analgesia trials. During each analgesia trial, Ss were instructed to give overt reports that reflected consciously experienced pain and covert reports that reflected the intensity of "hidden" pain. Treatment instructions administered before the 1st analgesia trial did not specify the relationship between overt and covert pain. Instructions given before the remaining 2 analgesia trials indicated that hidden pain would be either more or less intense than overt pain. Until they were given explicit information about the relative intensities of the pain, Ss reported no differences in the magnitude of overt and covert pain, contrary to the dissociation hypothesis of hypnotic analgesia. Consistent with social psychological formulations of the hidden observer phenomenon, Ss reported both higher covert than overt pain and lower covert than overt pain, depending on the instructions they were administered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity and schizophrenia: An equivalence of cognitive processing.

Two tests of creativity were given to 10 paranoid and 10 nonparanoid schizophrenics, 10 nonpsychotic psychiatric controls, and 10 normal Ss. Ss were aged between 18 and 50 yrs. Scores on vocabulary and similarities tests, as well as education, medication, marital status, socioeconomic background, and age, were examined. Results indicate that nonparanoid schizophrenics were significantly more creative than paranoids and psychiatric controls on one creativity measure, a graded level measure of the Alternate Uses Test. Also, nonparanoid schizophrenics produced a significantly higher percentage of "highly creative" responses than did normals. Nonparanoid schizophrenics also scored higher than the other groups on the Welsh Figure Preference Test, but this finding was found to be related to age rather than to schizophrenia. The superior performance of the nonparanoid schizophrenic is discussed in terms of the encouragement that a supportive, nonjudgmental testing environment provides. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructions and reward conditions on the generalization of a prohibition.

Studied effects of instructions and reward contingency on conformity to a prohibition in 48 male and female preschoolers. Ss built with blocks of graduated sizes but were told to use only big (little) blocks. Some were given explicit information as to the permitted sizes; some were not. For some Ss, a prize was contingent upon following instructions; for others, it was not. All groups conformed, displaying a gradient for blocks used according to size. Interactions between instruction and reward conditions are discussed in terms of the effects of task difficulty on performance under threat of negative consequences for errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of activity level in children.

Observed the open-field activity of 140 3-9 yr olds in a room divided into 4 parts, each of which contained a chair and a table with the same 5 toys. Ss participated in 2 15-min sessions, one with free-play instructions, the other with instructions to stay in 1 part of the room and play with a single toy. Parents of the Ss filled out a questionnaire version of the Werry-Weiss-Peters Activity Scale. Open-field activity decreased with age in almost perfectly monotonic fashion. Parents' activity ratings were also lower for older Ss. There were no significant sex differences on either the open-field measures or the parental ratings. Restrictive instructions decreased activity and toy-changing behavior in the open-field situation, but this effect was somewhat attenuated when restrictive instructions were the 1st ones given. A factor analysis of the ratings provided evidence for a number of independent components of activity in children. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's ability to adjust their standards for evaluating comprehension.

144 children 8 and 10 yrs of age listened to essays that contained either false statements or inconsistencies. They were asked to indicate which essays had problems in them. The 1st group of Ss was simply informed that some of the essays contained problems. A 2nd group was additionally told that some of the statements would be false and was given examples of falsehoods. A 3rd group was told instead that some of the essays would be inconsistent and was given examples of inconsistencies. Under neutral instructions, the rate of problem detection was quite low for both age groups. Specific instructions helped Ss find problems. Moreover, the relative order of difficulty in finding falsehoods and inconsistencies shifted depending on the instructional set, suggesting that the instruction enabled Ss to adjust their standard of evaluation. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effet du niveau de peur, de la nature des consignes et d'un re-test lors d'un test d'approche comportementale.

56 16–22 yr old female students with either a moderate or a strong fear of harmless snakes were selected on the basis of a combined score from the Fear Survey Schedule and another fear questionnaire. The 2 experimental groups were submitted twice to a test of behavioral approach whereas a control group was submitted only once to the test. For each level of fear, half of the Ss were given neutral instructions to approach the stimulus and the other half were strongly urged to approach it and go through the whole series of steps of the approach test. Ss in the experimental groups received the same instructions on both test occasions. Results show a retest effect (i.e., Ss were less fearful in the 2nd test), but no significant effect due to the type of instructions. Ss with the higher level of fear showed less approach behavior, went more slowly through the steps of the approach test, and verbally expressed stronger anxiety. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alphabetic sequence decisions for letter pairs with separations of one to three letters.

Tested the alphabet storage and retrieval theory of D. Klahr et al (1983) for applicability to letter-order decisions. Ss judged whether letter pairs with sequential separations of 1, 2, or 3 letters were in correct or incorrect order. Ss made decisions either in a continuous- or intermittent-attention mode. The results of alphabetic letter-order decisions with a letter separation of 1 were in conformance with the theory of Klahr et al in both attention modes. However, at letter separations of 2 and 3 letters, Ss made decisions that were more compatible with a symbolic-distance mechanism. Speculation on how Ss could make alphabetic-order decisions in either a memory-consultation or a symbolic-distance manner is made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of diazepam and methylphenidate on the electrodermal detection of guilty knowledge.

60 19–28 yr old male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups in an investigation of the effects of antianxiety (diazepam) and stimulant (methylphenidate) drugs on polygraphic interrogation. Ss assigned to the 3 guilty groups watched a videotape depicting the burglary of an apartment through the eyes of the thief. Each S was asked to imagine that it was he who was committing the crime and was given instructions to encourage his becoming absorbed in the videotape. Ss were given either diazepam, methylphenidate, or placebo capsules before a polygraph examination. Control Ss viewed a videotape depicting scenes from the interior of another apartment (no crime was committed) before being given a polygraph examination. Results show that drug status did not affect the validity of the polygraph examination. Ss who remembered more facts scored significantly more in the guilt direction. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of behavioral rating scale items for the assessment of individual creativity.

In the study of creativity, how would it do to have statements about creative people obtained in an unstructured interview form the basis for rating research personnel? After trial with 78 Ss, the data was subjected to linkage analysis. 8 types of items were identified. "It was suggested that the items presented may be valid discriminators between relatively more or less creative persons in a wide variety of research areas." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adler's psychology (of use) today: Personal history of traumatic life events as a self-handicapping strategy.

Investigated the hypothesis that the reporting of a history of traumatic life events may serve as a strategy to control attributions about performance in an evaluative setting (i.e., self-handicapping). 140 female undergraduates completed the state form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions (i.e., 2 evaluation threats by 2 traumatic history instructions). In groups of 7, Ss received specific (the project concerned development of local norms for measures of social intelligence) or innocuous information. After completion of an initial questionnaire, Ss either were told that traumatic history has no effect on task performance or received no instructions about filling out measures of the traumatic value of past life experiences and 2 manipulation checks. Results, as predicted, show that Ss emphasized the adversity of events and experiences in their background when an uncertain evaluation was expected and when a traumatic background would serve as a suitable excuse for potential failure. Results generally support the hypothesized self-protective reporting of traumatic life events. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a creative studies program on structure-of-intellect factors.

Administered a 2-yr sequence of 4 semester-long courses in creative problem solving to college students in an experimental group and gave no training to control students. Each semester emphasized a different aspect of creativity, and effects were assessed at the end of each semester with tests designed to reflect J. P. Guilford's Structure-of-Intellect model. A pretest battery established the initial comparability of 145 experimental and 153 control Ss. 101 experimental and 57 control Ss completed the 4-semester course and/or testing. The training had no significant effect on memory or evaluation operations but significantly improved divergent production, convergent production, and cognition. The data support a multidimensional analysis of creativity, involving not only idea-finding (divergent production) but also knowing (cognition), judging, and implementing ideas (cognition and convergent and divergent production). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)