Characterisation of white tea – Comparison to green and black tea

An overview is given on the manufacture of the different types of tea along with the most important phenolics present in tea and methods of analysis. Compositional data are presented for green, white and black teas. A differentiation of green and black tea by using the ratio between total phenolics and sum of the major catechins seems to be feasible. For white tea there is no general accepted definition. Possible approaches are geographic origin, the botanical variety and the manufacture or the appearance. The differentiation between green and white teas by the ratio mentioned above is not possible. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Green Tea Polyphenolic Compounds and Human Health

Polyphenols are a structurally diverse group of compounds that occur widely throughout the plant kingdom. Polyphenolic compounds are ubiquitous in all plant organs and are, therefore, an integral part of the human diet. Recent interest in food phenolics has increased greatly because of the antioxidant and free radical-scavenging abilities associated with some phenolics and their potential effects on human health. Most of the polyphenols in green tea are commonly known as catechins. The regular consumption of green tea is related to benefits in some diseases as atherosclerosis and cancer. Although consumption of dietary polyphenols such as flavonoids has been suggested to have beneficial biological effects, there are considerable evidences to suggest that such compounds are not without risk of adverse effects.     

The Compounds Contributing to the Greenness of Green Tea

ABSTRACT: Color is one of the determinant sensory qualities for green tea. As cold tea beverages in clear bottles are getting more popular, the traditional evaluation methods are gradually being altered to attach more importance to the tea infusion color. For quality control, experiments were carried out on 10 green tea samples to investigate the compounds influencing the colors of dry tea leaves and infusions. By calculating the coefficients of determination between the greenness (expressed in tristimulus data) and chemical composition, chlorophylls proved to be the influential compounds for the color of dry tea leaves; water-insoluble chlorophylls were also released from the fragile tea leaves during infusion and increased both the greenness and turbidity of tea infusions. Among the flavonoids (catechins and flavonols) detected in green tea infusions, quercetin was shown to be the most important phenolic compound contributing to the greenness of tea infusion.     

Untersuchungen zur aktuellen Belastung von Tiermehlen mit Tetracyclinen

Zusammenfassung:  Fleischmehle aus Herstellungsbetrieben in Deutschland, in denen die Rohstoffe entsprechend den spezifischen Anforderungen der Verordnung (EG) 1774/2002, Artikel 19 („Inverkehrbringen und Ausfuhr von verarbeitetem tierischem Eiwei? und anderen verarbeiteten Erzeugnissen, die als Futtermittel-Ausgangserzeugnisse verwendet werden k?nnen“) verarbeitet wurden, wurden im Rahmen dieser Studie einer qualitativen und quantitativen Untersuchung auf Tetracycline mittels LC-ESI-MS-MS unterzogen. Insgesamt wurden 108 Proben untersucht, davon 18 Knochenmehle, 16 Griebenmehle, 15 Geflügelmehle, 10 Geflügelfleischmehle und 49 Fleischknochenmehle. In den untersuchten Proben konnten Tetracycline nachgewiesen werden. Im Einzelnen wurden Oxytetracyclin sowie Tetracyclin in allen 108 Proben und Chlortetracyclin in 91 von 108 untersuchten Proben nachgewiesen. Die maximalen Gesamt-Tetracyclin-Gehalte betrugen 828,1 μg/kg in Knochenmehlen, 317,1 μg/kg in Griebenmehlen, 606,9 μg/kg in Geflügelmehlen, 267,1 μg/kg in Geflügelfleischmehlen und 1524,7 μg/kg in Fleischknochenmehlen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die rechtlich vorgeschriebene Erhitzung in Verarbeitungsanlagen nicht ausreichend ist, um einen Abbau von Tetracyclin-Rückst?nden sicherzustellen. Es muss angenommen werden, dass es nicht m?glich sein wird, Tetracyclin-freie Tiermehle herzustellen. Die m?glichen Folgen dieser Kontamination mit Tetracyclinen werden diskutiert.

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In this study, meat meals produced in Germany according to article 19 of regulation EC 1774/2002 (“Placing on the market and export of processed animal protein and other processed products that could be used as feed material”) were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively for tetracyclines using LC-ESI-MS-MS. A total of 108 samples was analysed: 18 bone meals, 16 greave meals, 15 poultry meals, 10 poultry meat meals and 49 meat and bone meal samples. Tetracycline derivatives were found in all analysed samples. Oxytetracycline and tetracycline were found in 108 samples, chlortetracycline was detected in 91 of 108 samples. The highest total tetracycline content was 828.1 μg/kg in bone meals, 317.1 μg/kg in greave meals, 606.9 μg/kg in poultry meals, 267.1 μg/kg in poultry meat meals and 1524.7 μg/kg in meat and bone meals, respectively. The results of this study showed that the compulsory heating step actually used in processing plants does not result in a degradation of tetracyclines. From these results it does not seem possible to produce tetracycline free animal meals from contaminated raw materials. Further, the possible implications of the findings are discussed.

Eingegangen: 14. M?rz 2008     

Microbiological Attributes of Turkish Butters Sold Under Market Conditions

In this study, microbiological quality of 45 butter samples sold under market conditions at Manisa (Turkey) was investigated. Total coliform, total fecal coliform, Escherichia coli and yeast and mould counts were found between < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1, < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1, < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1 and < 1.0 – > 6.62 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1 respectively. Only in one sample Salmonella was detected. Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in any of the samples. To that extent butters sold under market conditions in Manisa have high coliform, yeast and mould contamination. Received: April 29, 2008; received in revised form: May 28, 2008; accepted: June 3, 2008     

Animal Welfare Labelling and the Approach of the European Union: An Overview on the Current Situation

There is a growing appreciation of the insistence of consumers that animals used in food production should be well treated. High welfare standards could have both a direct and indirect impact on food safety and quality; regulatory and support systems in agriculture must adapt accordingly. Retailers and producers are increasingly recognising animal welfare as a fundamental aspect of product image and quality which create a need for reliable systems for on farm monitoring of animal welfare status and providing some warranty on appropriate production conditions. The article shows an overview of the European strategies for implementing the animal welfare labelling. Received: July 2, 2008; accepted: July 8, 2008     

Pharmakodynamische und pharmakokinetische Grundlagen der Mastitistherapie

Zusammenfassung:  Bei der Behandlung von Mastitiden steht die Anwendung von lokal oder systemisch verabreichten Antibiotika im Vordergrund. Bei der systemischen Anwendung sind der Bioverfügbarkeit und der Verteilung des Stoffes in die Milchdrüse besonderes Augenmerk zu schenken. Neben der Molekülgrü?e und dem Ausma? der Proteinbindung sind dabei die Lipophilie und der Ionisationsgrad des Arzneistoffs bestimmend. Schwache S?uren, wie beispielsweise β-Lactam-Antibiotika, liegen im Blutplasma überwiegend ionisiert vor; sie k?nnen die Blut-Milch-Schranke daher im Gegensatz zu schwachen Basen nur in ?u?erst geringem Umfang passieren. Bei der intramamm?ren Applikation muss gew?hrleistet werden, dass sich das Antibiotikum in ausreichendem Umfang im Drüsengewebe verteilt. Die Pr?parate sind in den meisten F?llen wie auch Formulierungen mit Langzeitwirkung beim Trockenstellen ?lige Suspensionen.

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The therapy of bovine mastitis usually relies on antibiotics, administered either systemically or by the intramammary route. A key factor in the success of systemic treatment is the bioavailability of the chemotherapeutic agent and the distribution into the mammary gland. Apart from molecular size and protein binding capacity, the lipid solubility of the active principle and its degree of ionisation play a major role. Weak acids (like β-lactams) are present in the ionised form in the blood and their ability to pass through the blood/udder barrier is very limited. The opposite is true for weak bases. In the case of intramammary administration the main consideration is that the substance is distributed sufficiently into the glandular tissue. This is why drugs for topical administration are usually formulated in an oily base, which is also suitable for long-term prophylaxis at drying off.

Eingegangen: 6. M?rz 2008; angenommen: 17. M?rz 2008     

Quantitative Determination of Isoflavones in Soy Based Nutritional Supplements by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

An increasing number of nutritional supplements contain phytoestrogens, in particular isoflavones, which potentially alleviate climacteric complaints. Intention of the present study was the qualitative and quantitative determination of isoflavones in soy based nutritional supplements in order to compare the actual content with the labeling of these products. For the analysis high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photo diode array (PDA) detection was used. The amount of isoflavones was determined via external calibration functions. Our analyses revealed certain variations in the isoflavone content of soy based nutritional supplements, with regard to the individual and the total amount. Furthermore, the total amount of isoflavones per serving unit in some products was higher than declared on the labeling, although only the major isoflavones were taken into account. This study shows that there is the necessity to clearly specify the isoflavone composition on the labeling and - due to safety aspects - to standardize and control the isoflavone content.

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Zusammenfassung:  Nahrungserg?nzungsmittel mit Zusatz von Soja werden vermehrt als “Alternative” zur klassischen Hormonersatztherapie für Frauen im Klimakterium angeboten. Diese Pr?parate enthalten Isoflavone, welche zu den Phytoestrogenen z?hlen und eine estrogene Wirkung aufweisen. Die in Sojabohnen enthaltenen Isoflavone sollen unter anderem klimakterische Beschwerden wie z.B. Hitzewallungen oder Tachykardie lindern. In der vorliegenden Studie wird eine Methode beschrieben, mit der aus Nahrungserg?nzungsmitteln mit Zusatz von Soja-Extrakten der Gehalt an Isoflavonen bestimmt werden kann. Dazu wurde eine HPLC-Methode mitDioden-Array-Detektion entwickelt, mit welcher die Quantifizierung der in Soja vorliegenden Isoflavone über externe Kalibrierfunktionen erfolgen kann. Damit war es m?glich, die vom Hersteller gemachten Angaben bezüglich der Isoflavongehalte zu überprüfen. Unsere Untersuchungen wiesen deutliche Unterschiede sowohl im Gesamtgehalt an Isoflavonen als auch in der individuellen Zusammensetzung der einzelnen Produkte auf. In einigen F?llen war der Isoflavongehalt in einigen Produkten pro Verzehrseinheit deutlich h?her als vom Hersteller angegeben. Unsere Untersuchungen belegen die Notwendigkeit im Sinne des Verbraucherschutzes, die Isoflavongehalte in Nahrungserg?nzungsmitteln klar zu spezifizieren und zu deklarieren.

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Received: January 9. 2008; accepted: February 19. 2008     

The Human Metabolism of Organophosphorothionate Pesticides: Consequences for Toxicological Risk Assessment

Organophosphorothionates (OPT) are one of the most widely used insecticides in the world, both in agriculture and in indoor environment. Therefore, a large part of the population may be exposed to this class of pesticides, either professionally or due to their presence in food and water as residues. OPTs acute toxic effects, mediated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, are relatively selective to insects. However, most of the thousands of deaths annually reported to be associated to pesticide exposure are due to OPT severe poisoning, resulting in hyperexcitability of the nervous system. In addition, long-term neurological and neurobehavioral effects have been described, associated to chronic exposure to OPT low levels. Metabolism is one of the main factors determining OPT adverse effects. OPTs need to be bioactivated by a cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated desulfuration to phosphate triesters or oxons, which are the actual powerful inhibitors of brain and serum AChE. The main detoxification pathways are oxon hydrolysis catalyzed by plasma oxonases (PON1), `sequestration' or hydrolysis by carboxylesterases, CYP-catalyzed dearylation/dealkylation. Variation activity of the enzymes involved in OPT metabolism could be expected to contribute to differences in susceptibility to OPT toxic effects, either due to genetic polymorphism or environmental influence, altering the bioactivation/detoxication ratio. The reactions involved in OPT metabolism in humans are described in the paper, with consequences for OPT-induced toxicity. In addition, identification of biomarkers of susceptibility and interactions among different OPTs and with other xenobiotics are briefly discussed, as factors influencing risk assessment of cumulative effects due to OPT exsposure.

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Nanoparticles: Aspects of Safety and Risk Management

Synthetic nanoparticles are within the scope of the existing chemical law in Europe (REACH). However, the present knowledge is not yet sufficient for the elaboration of nanospecific regulations. Many projects with the aim of completing the necessary scientific and technical basis for the assessment of nanotechnology related risks are under way. Under these circumstances voluntary safety standards by authorities or industry constitute an appropriate tool for the protection of human health and the environment. Received: June 2, 2008; accepted: June 3, 2008.     

Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von Kaffee, Tee und Kakao – eine Übersicht für Deutschland

Zusammenfassung:  Um Auskunft über die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von Kaffee, Tee und Kakao zu geben, werden in diesem Mini-Review u.a. aktuelle Angaben zur weltweiten Produktion dieser drei „Exoten“ gemacht (Menge und Herkunftsl?nder), die jeweiligen Import-Anteile der Produktionsl?nder nach Deutschland (bzw. in die EU) benannt, der Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch an Kaffee, Tee oder Kakao in Deutschland mit dem anderer Staaten verglichen und – sofern m?glich – Einblick gegeben in die Entwicklung von weltweitem Angebot und Nachfrage und die damit verbundene Preisentwicklung in den vergangenen Jahren. Eingegangen: 2. Juli 2007     

SARS – Pandemie und Emerging Disease

The SARS-epidemic of 2002/2003 with worldwide 8.096 cases and 774 fatalities was the first pandemia of the 21^st century. SARS, the severe acute respiratory syndrome, arose in southern China and spread from Southeast-Asia finally over all five continents. It caused heavy pneumonia with pulmonal failure and enteric involvement in man. The causative agent was a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV), which was transmitted from bats to small carnivores and from them to man. The mutations of the viral receptor gene thus allowed the infection of man and the transmission from man to man. The SARS-pandemia can therefore be regarded as a model of an emerging disease. Eingegangen: 21. Mai 2008     

Klinische Wirksamkeitsprüfung von Tierarzneimitteln – ein kurzer Überblick

Zusammenfassung:  Der Artikel gibt einen kurzen überblick über die Prüfung der klinischen Wirksamkeit von Tierarzneimitteln. Es werden sowohl die gesetzlichen Grundlagen und in Erg?nzung hierzu einige gültige Leitlinien als auch die Voraussetzungen zur Durchführung klinischer Studien angesprochen. Zum Studiendesign werden spezielle Punkte wie z.B. GCP (Good Clinical Practice), Studienpopulation oder Zielkriterien genannt. Schlie?lich befasst sich der Artikel mit einigen Ausnahmen zur Durchführung klinischer Studien zur Wirksamkeitsprüfung. Eingegangen: 20. September 2007     

Acute View Transport biofuels: Can they help limiting climate change without an upward impact on food prices?

Comprehensive life cycle assessments show that current transport biofuels often do worse than conventional fossil transport fuels as to the emission of greenhouse gases. Biofuels from microalgae grown with present technology and lignocellulosic biofuels from current arable land or land that is to be deforested are unlikely to do better regarding the emission of greenhouse gases than fossil transport fuels. When crops characterized by relatively low fossil fuel inputs and relatively high biomass yields are grown on abandoned agricultural and marginal soils which currently sequester little carbon, cropping for transport biofuels may help in limiting climate change without an impact on food prices. For such cropping one probably has to go beyond the market mechanism. Worldwide, there is some scope for the use of harvest residues in biofuel production. However, European arable soils show on average large losses of soil carbon and this rather favors increased addition of such residues to soils. Received: November 17, 2008; accepted: December 3, 2008     

Polyphenolic compounds characterization and reactive nitrogen species scavenging capacity of Oenothera paradoxa defatted seed extracts

Biological investigations have revealed high scavenging capacity of Oenothera paradoxa defatted seed extract on reactive nitrogen species such as NO and ONOO⁻. The characteristics of the polyphenols present in the extracts were checked using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray negative ionization ion trap mass spectrometry. Extracts contained five groups of compound: phenolic acids (gallic acid, ethyl gallate, ellagic acid and ferulic acid pentoside), flavanols (catechin, catechin gallate) and oligomeric procyanidins, flavonols (quercetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-pentoside and quercetin), and gallotannins (tetragalloyl glucose, pentagalloyl glucose and hexagalloyl glucose). Penta-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose were present in the extracts in concentrations from 9.44 to 16.75 mg/g, which demonstrated a significant NO and ONOO⁻ scavenging activity with IC₅₀ 0.20 and 0.06 μM, respectively, may be considered as an O. paradoxa extract quality marker.     

Climate Protection

The voice of the social sciences in climate research and in climate policy discussions, except for interventions from economists mainly about the costs associated with policy options driven by climate science research, has been muted if not altogether absent. The absence of the social sciences from climate research and policy not surprisingly has coloured climate discourse in peculiar ways. We are making the case for a greater involvement and importance of the social sciences in interdisciplinary climate research.

It is not space but the structuring that comes from the soul that has social significance. Georg Simmel ([1908] 1992)

Soil and climate together determine the natural fertility of a country and of its people who are led either to indolence or to activity. Werner Sombart (1938)

Received: September 26, 2008; accepted: October 2, 2008     

Elektronische Übermittlung von Meldungen zu Verdachtsfällen unerwünschter Wirkungen nach Anwendung von Tierarzneimitteln an das BVL

Zusammenfassung:  Daten zu unerwünschten Reaktionen nach der Anwendung von Tierarzneimitteln müssen von pharmazeutischen Unternehmern in einer dem europ?ischen Datenmodell entsprechenden elektronischen Form an das Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit übermittelt werden. Hierfür stehen vier verschiedene technische L?sungen zur Verfügung. Durch die elektronische übertragung konnten Fortschritte in der Pharmakovigilanz erzielt werden, welche dazu beitragen, die Qualit?t, Sicherheit und Wirksamkeit von Tierarzneimitteln sicherzustellen.

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Summary:  Marketing authorisation holders are obliged to send data of adverse reactions after use of veterinary medicinal products to Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety in electronic form according to European standards. Four technical solutions to provide those reports are available. Through electronic transmission improvements in pharmacovigilance have been made, which will help to ensure quality, safety, and efficacy of veterinary medicinal products.

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Eingegangen: 19. September 2008     

Control of Some Filamentous Fungi and Yeasts by Dehydrated Allium Extracts

The antifungal activities of dehydrated garlic (Allium sativum L.), onion (Allium cepa L.) and leek (Allium porrum L.) against Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, Candida albicans ATCC 10231 and Metschnikowia fructicola were investigated. Inhibition activities of the ethyl alcohol or acetone extracts of dehydrated Allium species were studied by disc-diffusion and broth dilution methods. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and the Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) were found in the range of 75 and 100 mg/mL (w/v). Ethyl alcohol extracts of dehydrated onion (Allium cepa L.) in the range of 75 and 175 mg/mL were determined as the most inhibitory MIC and MFC for A. niger, F. oxysporum and C. albicans respectively. The extracts possess antifungal activity against some of the tested filamentous fungi and yeasts at various concentrations. Received: July 8, 2008; accepted: July 30, 2008     

Review: Tierarzneimittel in der Umwelt unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Stallstäuben

Zusammenfassung:  Weltweit werden in zunehmenden Umfang Untersuchungen zu Vorkommen, Verhalten und m?glichen Effekten von Human- und Tierarzneimitteln in der Umwelt durchgeführt. Der Einsatz betr?chtlicher Mengen an Tierarzneimitteln führte in erster Linie zum Eintrag von antibiotisch wirksamen Stoffen wie Tetracyclinen und Sulfonamiden in Gülle, Stallstaub, Boden, Oberfl?chengew?sser und in seltenen F?llen auch in das Grundwasser. Auch die Verlagerung von Tierarzneimitteln über den Boden in Nutzpflanzen wurde nachgewiesen. Die h?chsten Tierarzneimittelkonzentrationen fand man in Gülle und Stallstaub (mg/kg-Bereich), Spurenkonzentrationen wurden in Oberfl?chen- und Grundwasser detektiert (unterer μg/L-Bereich). Akute toxische Effekte z. B. auf Wassermikroorganismen sind durch die gemessenen Tierarzneimittel-Konzentrationen nicht zu erwarten. Ob die Antibiotikaeintr?ge in Boden und Grundwasser im subtherapeutischen Konzentrationsbereich allerdings zu einer Resistenzbildung bei Bodenbakterien beitragen oder mikrobiologische Lebensgemeinschaften nachhaltig ver?ndern k?nnen, l?sst sich zurzeit nicht abschlie?end beurteilen. Durch landwirtschaftliche St?ube ist auch eine unmittelbare Aufnahme von Veterin?rantibiotika durch den Menschen m?glich. Eingegangen: 13. M?rz 2008; angenommen: 14. M?rz 2008