Policy to reality: evaluating the evidence trajectory for English eco-towns

Can evidence reconcile idealized policy formation processes with the messy reality of large-scale sustainable projects? Was the main driver of the UK eco-towns project the national housing need or a local version of sustainability? To answer, this paper traces the progress of the eco-town policy: from a government-funded initiative to start a cohort of new towns, via the first pilot sites, to the delivery of a single eco-town. It maps the national policy intent, which incorporated industry and academic expertise into a strategic policy vision. Then the local interpretation of this generic eco-town definition is reviewed, along with how the authoritative knowledge on innovative eco-planning is distilled into guidance. By revisiting the original eco-town objectives, comparing them with the recently published garden cities prospectus, the limitations for intra-national implementation of national policy frameworks are considered, asking whether any lessons have been incorporated in the current round of policy formation. The success or failure of such policy implementation is found to be more of a socio-political exercise than an empirical or rationalist process. The eco-towns were less an attempt to establish new forms of sustainable habitations than a political attempt to use eco-planning to justify new large-scale housing settlements.     

Constraints on evidence-based policy: insights from government practices

Insights are offered into UK government built environment policy-making processes through an insider's perspective (based on experience of being the chief executive of a public body, the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment – CABE) on three empirical examples. The government's mandate was for policies to be evidence based. There was no shortage of demand for evidence, but it was fed into political and bureaucratic domains where less- or non-evidence-based influences were also at work. The questions considered are how much the evidence really influenced the content of policy; and whether making a policy ‘evidence based' led to its acceptance across government, causing departments to commit to its delivery. It is found that evidence (1) is powerful for defining issues to which policy should attend, (2) captures the attention of policy and decision-makers, but only if presented succinctly, and (3) is essential for testing outcomes. Supposedly evidence-based policy is not always truly evidence based. Many subjective forces counterbalance objectivity. The most significant reasons for this are mooted. Advice is offered on how to make evidence a more effective part of a process that will always be partly technical and objective, but also political and subjective.     

Energy epidemiology: a new approach to end-use energy demand research

The call for action to transform the built environment and address the threats of climate change has been clearly made. However, to support the development, implementation and on-going evaluation of energy demand policy, a strong evidence base is needed to identify associations and establish underlying causes behind outcomes and variations in end-use energy demand within the population. A new approach to end-use energy demand research is presented which is founded on the interdisciplinary health sciences research framework of epidemiology, along with the establishment of a research centre. A case is made that through an ‘energy epidemiology’ approach a strong, population-level, empirically based research foundation can be advanced. Energy epidemiology is a whole-system approach that focuses on empirical research and provides a methodological framework for building physicists, engineers, sociologists and economists to engage in interdisciplinary work. The adaptation of the epidemiological approach to end-use energy demand studies will provide the means to observe and describe the trends and patterns of energy demand, to undertake and contextualize interventional studies, and to establish strong associations between factors that lead to an energy demand-related outcome or event. Such an approach would strengthen the evidence base to inform policy decisions and evaluate past intervention programmes or regulatory actions.

Il a été clairement lancé un appel pour mettre en place des mesures propres à transformer le cadre bâti et à faire face aux menaces du changement climatique. Néanmoins, pour soutenir l'élaboration, la mise en ?uvre et l'évaluation en continu de la politique relative à la demande énergétique, il est nécessaire de disposer d'une solide base de données factuelle pour identifier les associations et établir les causes sous-jacentes des résultats et des variations de la demande énergétique des utilisateurs finals au sein de la population. Il est présenté une nouvelle approche pour l'étude de la demande énergétique des utilisateurs finals, qui est fondée sur le cadre interdisciplinaire de l'épidémiologie utilisé pour les recherches dans les sciences de la santé, ainsi que sur l'établissement d'un centre de recherche. Il est fait valoir que, par une approche basée sur une « épidémiologie de l'énergie », il est possible de faire progresser la fondation d'une recherche empirique solide au niveau de la population. L'épidémiologie de l'énergie est une approche systémique globale qui est axée sur la recherche empirique et fournit un cadre méthodologique aux physiciens, ingénieurs, sociologues et économistes du bâtiment afin qu'ils participent à des travaux interdisciplinaires. L'adaptation de l'approche épidémiologique aux études relatives à la demande énergétique des utilisateurs finals donnera les moyens d'observer et de décrire les tendances et les schémas de la demande énergétique, d'entreprendre et de contextualiser des études interventionnelles, et d'établir les associations fortes entre les facteurs qui conduisent à un résultat ou à un événement lié à la demande énergétique. Une telle approche renforcerait la base de données factuelle afin d'éclairer les décisions en matière de politique et d'évaluer les programmes d'intervention passés ou les mesures réglementaires prises.

Mots clés: bâtiments, cadre bâti, demande énergétique, épidémiologie, base factuelle, interdisciplinaire, politique publique, recherche     

建成环境理论研究范式:回顾与展望

对基于财富的、基于用户的、面向流的和面向空间的研究范式做了简要介绍,表明建成环境理论研究已经取得长足的进展,同时仍有很大的发展空间。提出一个多维度的分析框架,指出人与人之间的关系才是问题的核心;为了形成完整的建成环境理论体系,一方面要对不同的理论资源进行整合,另一方面要根据不同的时空条件对任务进行分解。     

城市交通可持续发展的道路:城市交通发展政策规划──兼析南京城市交通发展状况

城市交通空间拓展及对个体机动化交通工具的依赖,增加了城市交通拥挤、交通污染与能源消耗,降低了城市交通的运输效率。城市交通可持续发展,决非一项政策、一项措施或一次行动就可以实现的。本文明确城市交通可持续发展之路,是城市交通发展政策规划,即通过城审交通发展政策,控制诱导城市交通空间及方式结构发展,在城市有限道路交通资源条件下,实现城市交通的极大化运输,降低出行对个体机动车的依赖程度。     

Cold comfort in a high carbon society?

It is now obvious that technology and society co-evolve. This should lead to increasing collaboration between social scientists and engineers in fields such as buildings. Yet engineering insights still have hegemony over building practices and the setting of standards. This paper considers how the insights from the recent Building Research & Information 2008 special issue titled ‘Comfort in a Lower Carbon Society’ might be applied in the building sector and in associated policy-making processes. It concludes that economics, the dominant discipline in the policy world, tells us that there is a huge prize to be gained in terms of reducing carbon emissions in the built environment, but that it does not provide many clues about the practical steps needed to secure the prize. Social science insights could be critical here. Specifically, it is argued that social science can increase one's understanding of the ways in which needs and demand for comfort are created. It can help design regulatory processes that build in visions of a lower carbon society from the start. It also provides the insight that high-level policy-makers must send coherent signals to regulators and practitioners to avoid the low carbon building agenda coming into conflict with other policy goals.

Il est évident, aujourd'hui, que la technologie et la société évoluent ensemble. Cela devrait conduire à une collaboration plus étroite entre chercheurs sociaux et ingénieurs dans des domaines tels que la construction. Or, l'information technique prend toujours le pas sur les pratiques du bâtiment et sur l'élaboration de normes. Cet article étudie comment les idées contenues dans le numéro spécial de Building Research & Information 2008 consacré au confort dans une société sobre en carbone pourraient être appliquées au secteur du bâtiment et aux procédures décisionnelles associées. L'auteur conclut que l'économie, la discipline dominante du monde politique, nous indique qu'il y aurait beaucoup à gagner en termes de réduction des émissions de carbone dans le milieu bâti mais il ne donne aucune piste sur les mesures pratiques nécessaires pour sécuriser cet avantage. Les idées qui circulent dans les sciences sociales pourraient être critiques à cet égard. De manière spécifique, on fait valoir que les sciences sociales pourraient améliorer la compréhension des solutions dans lesquelles sont créés les besoins et la demande de confort. Elles pourraient aider à définir des procédures régulatrices envisageant dès le départ la perspective d'une société sobre en carbone. Elles indiquent également que les décideurs politiques de haut niveau doivent envoyer des signaux cohérents aux organes de réglementation et aux praticiens pour éviter que les programmes de construction à faible teneur en carbone contredisent d'autres objectifs politiques.

Mots clés: comportement adaptatif, milieu bâti, changement climatique, confort, consommation, gestion de la demande, gouvernance, société sobre en carbone, élaboration des politiques, politique publique     

Scaling-down and scaling-up processes of territorial governance: cities and regions facing institutional reform and planning challenges

The process of territorial governance rescaling now ongoing in European countries concerns not only the devolution of competencies from central states to regional politico-administrative levels (towards federalism) but also a new role of institutions, agencies and companies operating in well-defined sectors. A complex – downward and upward – transfer of competencies, powers and resources is taking place. In particular, cities belong to specific territories, but are increasingly involved in large-scale processes as far as services and infrastructure construction and management are concerned, as well as economic and cooperation initiatives. This often requires the creation of regional or upper-scale agencies and companies.

The article focuses – within an analytical framework concerning the dynamics of regions and cities in the European space – on three cities in Northern Italy (Bolzano-Bozen, Trento and Verona) undergoing contradictory trends towards federalism, on the one hand, and policy integration at variable scales on specific issues – in a multi-level governance perspective – on the other hand. Finally, the role of strategic, spatial and urban planning processes and tools are analysed, drawing some conclusions of general interest.     

Influencing Urban Planning Policy: An Exploration from the Perspective of Public Health

Human health requires the proper development and management of places through urban planning. This paper demonstrates how concerns for human health can become explicit matters for consideration in urban planning policy systems. Taking advantage of a rare opportunity to examine the policy development process, we combine a realist analysis, with a new institutional policy approach, to study a case of planning system review in Australia. These insights are useful for practitioners presented with similar opportunities for legislative influence. We also demonstrate the way this approach can be used in future research to develop rich insights into the forces at play in positioning health as explicitly related to urban governance.     

The Tough Minded and the Tender Minded: A Pragmatic Turn for Sustainable Development Planning and Policy

Among the many approaches being taken to sustainable development planning and policy, a basic dichotomy exists. The dichotomy is the classic one recognized over a century ago by pragmatist philosopher William James—between the tough minded and the tender minded, or in this case, those who trust in more and better information to address sustainability challenges and those who rest on the power of a plurality of voices. In this paper we demonstrate how this dichotomy confounds the construction of a holistic, actionable sustainability planning paradigm, frustrating in pragmatic terms the effort to develop sustainability planning that makes a difference. We argue for an approach to sustainable development grounded in the philosophy of pragmatism as a means to connect tough and tender minded perspectives on sustainability planning, policy and action. After detailing how tough and tender minded temperaments among sustainability advocates translate into different types of understandings and initiatives, a pragmatic framework for a holistic sustainability planning and policy suite is proposed. This framework is argued based on an understanding of pragmatic theories of truth and rationality, integration and a process basis for action, and human experience as a touchstone for public values and action priorities. This article contributes to the growing body of planning scholarship that draws upon pragmatic philosophy, connecting this with the growing body of work within environmental philosophy that highlights the utility of pragmatism in building a philosophy of sustainable development. If planners and members of the democratic public can work towards a common understanding that it is a process of continuous communication and interaction among citizens and experts that needs to be sustained in the push toward sustainable development, that knowledge is to be generated and tested in public contexts, and that stories have standing alongside scientific models and statistics, important moves toward sustainability can be made in the planning profession as a whole.     

政策干预对区域均衡发展绩效的检验——京津冀地区产业演化的历程解读

近年来中国的区域非均衡发展问题日益受到关注。本文在对政策干预的相关研究进展进行全面梳理的基础上,选取1977-2017年的全国注册工商企业数据,对京津冀地区产业结构及政策干预的发展历程进行解读,揭示京津冀地区产业演化的特征,并阐述政策干预与区域均衡-非均衡发展间的耦合关系。研究发现:第一,京津冀地区的产业不平衡增长逐渐从要素驱动向创新驱动转变,技术进步成为加剧区域非均衡发展的主要原因;第二,京津冀地区协调发展的实现不仅需要关注资本、劳动力等生产性要素,还需要重视与创新能力相联系的知识、关系、制度等创新性要素的累积。     

Diversity in real estate developer behaviour: A case for research

The diversity of developer behaviour and its implications for the built environment require investigation. The paper illustrates this with six types of developer behaviour identified in two small but rapidly growing east coast Australian local government areas and comments on the their implications for the nature of urban development.     

Diversity in real estate developer behaviour: A case for research

Abstract

The diversity of developer behaviour and its implications for the built environment require investigation. The paper illustrates this with six types of developer behaviour identified in two small but rapidly growing east coast Australian local government areas and comments on the their implications for the nature of urban development.     

Establishing sustainability: policy successes and failures

While some countries' building sectors have accepted and implemented public policies aimed at promoting a sustainable built environment, these measures have had little impact and change has been modest. This problem has been investigated by evaluating the concept of sustainable development in terms of its influence on environmental problems caused by the processes involved in planning, building and construction. A literature survey examining the resulting changes in public policies for a built environment produced a summary of the explanations for policy failure. The barriers to sustainable development are both general and sector specific. Policy-makers could be more effective in tackling the fragmented nature of the built environment's institutional context. Policy-making theory and past experience in planning suggest that a variety of actors should be included in the policy process, and that their knowledge should be put to good use. Those involved must develop a common understanding of what sustainable building entails, and of how it can be achieved. This requires flexibility concerning goals and procedures. One pitfall is a disproportionate focus on policy processes as against real issues. It is vital that policy processes are prioritized, sustainability presented unambiguously, and practitioners' use of research results closely monitored.

Alors que dans certains pays, les industriels de la construction ont accepté et mis en ?uvre des politiques publiques visant à promouvoir un milieu bâti durable, ces mesures ont eu peu d'impact et les changements ont été modestes. Ce problème a été étudié en évaluant le concept de développement durable en termes de son influence sur les problèmes d'environnement posés par les processus intervenant dans la planification, la construction et les bâtiments. Une analyse de la documentation consacrée aux changements qui en ont résulté dans les politiques publiques relatives au milieu bâti a permis de présenter un résumé des explications des défaillances de la politique. Les obstacles au développement durable sont à la fois de nature générale et propres à ce secteur. Les décideurs pourraient être plus efficaces lorsqu'ils s'attaquent au problème de la nature fragmentée du contexte institutionnel du milieu bâti. La théorie de l'élaboration des politiques et l'expérience passée en matière de planification laissent à penser que plusieurs facteurs devraient être inclus dans les processus politiques et que leur connaissance devrait être mise à bon usage. Tous ceux qui sont engagés dans ce processus doivent développer une compréhension commune de ce que les bâtiments durables impliquent et expliquer comment cet objectif peut être atteint. Cela nécessite une certaine souplesse en ce qui concerne les objectifs et les procédures. La focalisation disproportionnée sur les processus politiques au détriment des vrais problèmes serait un écueil. Il est essentiel que les processus politiques soient prioritaires, que la durabilité soit présentée sans ambiguïté et que l'utilisation des résultats de la recherche par les intéressés soit surveillée de près.

Mots clés: performances des bâtiments, obstacles institutionnels, processus politiques, outils de politique, politique publique, milieu bâti durable, développement durable, tendances     

The New Urban Agenda: key opportunities and challenges for policy and practice

The UN-HABITAT III conference held in Quito in late 2016 enshrined the first Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) with an exclusively urban focus. SDG 11, as it became known, aims to make cities more inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable through a range of metrics, indicators, and evaluation systems. It also became part of a post-Quito ‘New Urban Agenda’ that is still taking shape. This paper raises questions around the potential for reductionism in this new agenda, and argues for the reflexive need to be aware of the types of urban space that are potentially sidelined by the new trends in global urban policy.     

Affordable Housing Plans in London and New York: Between Marketplace and Social Mix

The article reviews and critically analyzes contemporary housing policies and plans in London and New York in the context of neoliberal urban governance. In both cities, we find severe housing affordability problems, an increasing dependence on market provision of affordable housing, and a gradual shift from supporting low- and moderate-income residents to promoting housing for households around and above the median income. Affordable housing plans in both cities also link their “marketplace” orientation to “social mix” objectives. The article addresses some socio-spatial implications of these plans and raises concerns regarding the implementation and unintended consequences of mixed-income housing. The conclusion discusses ideas and tools for more equitable affordable housing policies. Finally, we suggest that our analysis of the policy trends in London and New York and the implications we draw may be relevant to other global and globalizing cities, which face similar affordability concerns and rely on the marketplace to address housing needs.     

Implementation of European Cohesion Policy at the sub-national level: Evidence from beneficiary data in Eastern Germany

Regional governments’ discretion in allocating structural funds is limited by the competences of the European Commission to control fiscal activities of decentralized governments. Regional political behaviour and the complexity of the implementation process shape the policy outcome. Who benefits from structural funds? In this paper, we analyse implementation of ERDF funds in East Germany in the financial perspective 2007 to 2013. We find that less rural regions and some economic sectors benefit by more than others. A few beneficiaries control the highest share of the funds. The Gini coefficients vary by group of actor and show high inequality in the distribution of the funds. This indicates that a few actors have better access to the funds than others.     

Evolution of energy policy in the Netherlands: past,present and future

In this paper, the past, present and possible future developments of energy policy for the built environment in the Netherlands are described briefly. The focus is on the development of and necessity for introducing new policy instruments for the built environment. Over the years, energy policy has evolved gradually to create a more integrated approach to the energy efficiency of buildings and larger urban districts. However, further evolution might be inevitable due to a shift of the primary driver for ‘energy’ policy from energy conservation to carbon dioxide reduction. Maximum targets of carbon dioxide emissions are being developed for each sector by 2010 and each sector has the obligation to meet its defined carbon dioxide reduction goal. Severe carbon dioxide reduction goals for the built environment in the Netherlands can only be achieved by means of energy efficiency improvement and fuel substitution, replacing natural gas with lower-carbon fuels. The introduction of lower-carbon fuels raises policy questions on whether to maintain the old infrastructure at great cost or whether investment should be in a new energy infrastructure and how this transition can be managed.