Effect of post weld heat treatment on weldability of high entropy alloy welds

The effect of post weld heat treatment (PWHT) temperature on laser beam welds in high-entropy alloys (HEAs) using a cold-rolled cantor system (CoCrFeMnNi) was investigated. Laser welding of low heat input was applied to reduce thermal distortion. The cold-rolled HEA welds indicated larger grain size and inferior tensile/hardness properties as compared to the base metal (BM). By applying PWHT, the welds showed superior hardness to the BM with no variation in the face-centred cubic phase and a decrease in the size and fraction of CrMn oxide inclusions. As the PWHT temperature increased (800–1000°C), the variation in the grain size decreased between the weld metal and heat-affected zone, thus resulting in approximately the same tensile strength and elongation of the transverse welds as compared to the BM.     

Evolution of residual stresses in dissimilar steel surfacing layers during process of post-weld heat treatment

Abstract

Residual stress relaxation during post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is a thermodynamic process, which is affected not only by the heat treatment process, but also by the welding residual stress. In this study, the residual stresses in as welded and heat treated surfacing metal were measured using blind hole and X-ray method. The results reveal that the welding residual stresses are compressive at the surface of the weld and tensile at inner weld. However, after PWHT, the residual stresses at surface and inner weld change to the opposite state. Finite element simulations show that the differences of expansion coefficients between base metal and filler material are the main factor to the changes of stress state. The experimental results verify that the expansion coefficients of base metal and filler materials have been changed greatly after long soaking at high temperature.     

Modifying residual stress levels in rail flash-butt welds using localised rapid post-weld heat treatment and accelerated cooling

Abstract

Flash-butt welding is used in the manufacture of continuously-welded rails. Finished welds typically exhibit high tensile residual stresses in the rail web and at the upper surface of the rail foot, which may increase the risk of fatigue failure in service. An understanding of the influence of the welding process, including post-weld cooling, on the residual stress distribution is necessary to improve the performance of flash-butt welds by post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), since incorrect treatment may have adverse effects on both residual stress and weld material characteristics. A finite element model has been developed to simulate post-weld cooling in flash-butt welded AS60 kg m^–1 rail. Computed thermal histories for normal (air) cooling, rapid PWHT, and accelerated cooling (water spray) were used as inputs to calculate sequentially coupled stress–time histories, including phase transformations. In addition, the localised influence of the initiation time for rapid PWHT, after final upset, on the reduction of tensile residual stresses was investigated. Heating the rail foot immediately after final upset reduced tensile residual stresses in the web region of the weld. Preliminary numerical predictions showed that water quenching the entire weld region too soon after the austenite–pearlite transformation is completed can induce further tensile residual stresses without affecting the microstructure. The results of the numerical analysis can be used to modify the flash-butt welding procedure to lower residual stress levels, and hence improve weld performance.     

Residual welding stresses in laser beam and tungsten inert gas weldments of titanium alloy

Abstract

The residual welding stresses in laser beam (LB) and tungsten inert gas (TIG) weldments of a titanium alloy in thin plate form were investigated experimentally in the present work. A hole drilling technique was used to measure the residual stresses in the weldments. The effects of the welding method and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on the residual stresses were analysed. The results show that (i) the residual stress distribution in the LB welded joints is similar to that obtained for traditional fusion welding processes, although the distribution zone is much narrower in LB welding, (ii) the residual stress in the heat affected zone for LB welding is about 100 MPa lower than that for TIG welding, and (iii) PWHT in vacuum greatly relieves the welding residual stress.     

Cr-Mo钢管子局部焊后热处理加热宽度准则的确定

采用粘弹塑性有限元方法从应力释放角度讨论了Cr-Mo钢局部热处理下各种优化加热条件.研究表明,局部热处理过程产生的瞬态和残余应力受蠕变性能和温度关系弹性模量等因素的影响.当加热宽度足够大时,局部热处理后的应力与炉中热处理的应力接近.通过与现有标准的比较,从应力释放角度位于焊缝中心5√Rt的加热宽度较为合理.提出了考虑焊接冷却过程Cr-Mo低温膨胀现象的相变模型.给出了焊接残余应力与局部焊后热处理应力的试验结果与模拟结果的对比.     

Internal residual stress measurement on inertia friction welding of nickel-based superalloy

The internal residual stress in the narrow inertia friction welding (IFW) welds of FGH96 nickel-based superalloy was measured with the contour method (CM). The as-welded internal hoop and axial residual stresses were obtained after two cuts and the detailed steps of the CM measurement were described. In addition, the hole-drilling method was used to obtain the surface stress. Furthermore, the internal hoop residual stress of a FGH96 superalloy IFW specimen after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) was also measured with the CM after a single cut. The measured results show that the peak hoop residual stress is not symmetrical about the weld centreline. Axial residual stress on the outer surface at the weld centreline is compressive stress, while tensile stress appears on the inner surface, and it varies linearly along the thickness. The peak values of hoop tensile and compressive stresses decrease dramatically after PWHT.     

Pitting of austenitic stainless steel clad metals

Austenitic stainless steel welds with different ferrite contents (4 and 12 FN) were obtained by the Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) strip cladding process, and some clads were remelted by TIG. The welds were post weld heat treated (PWHT) at 600, 800, 1000°C for 1 h. Pitting potentials were measured in 1 N H₂SO₄ + 0.5 N NaCl. Etching at the pitting potentials was carried out in the same solution in order to locate the pit sites; pitting studies were also conducted in 10% FeCl₃ solution. The results showed that an increase in ferrite content decreases pitting resistance. PWHT at 800°C decreases pitting resistance, too, whereas PWHT at 1000°C results in increased pitting resistance at austenite/ferrite interfaces. TIG samples showed less pits than their SAW counterparts.     

局部焊后热处理加热宽度的直接评定方法

局部焊后热处理通常用改善焊接接头的性能和消除焊接残余应力。影响局部焊后热处理的因素很我,其中加热宽度是最重要的一个控制参数。然后对于加热宽度的确定,各国标准规定就很不一致。本语文采用粘弹塑性有限元分析,提出一个基于残余应力消除效果的局部焊后热处理的直接评定方法。该方法可清楚地显示整个热处理过程的应力变化并可找到临界的加热宽度。对存在原始焊接残余应力随加热宽度的增加而降低,当加热宽度达到一定值,残余     

Effects of annealing on microstructure and properties of linear friction welded dissimilar titanium joints

Linear friction welds of Ti–6Al–4V (TC4, according to Chinese classification) to Ti–6·5Al–3·5Mo–1·5Zr–0·3Si (TC11, according to Chinese classification) were subject to post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) at 650°C×4 h (PWHT1) and at 950°C×1 h+530°C×4 h (PWHT2) under air cooling. In the as welded joint, TC4 had recrystallised sufficiently compared to TC11. After PWHT1, the α grains in the TC4 weld centre zone grew to some extent and many superfine equiaxed recrystallised α grains precipitated along β boundaries on the TC11 side. The grain growth along the weld line in the weld centre zone under PWHT2 was evident. PWHT2 reduced the joint tensile strength due to the coarsening of the microstructure. The joint microhardness decreased after PWHT.     

Postweld solution annealing effects on the ductility of ni-co-cr-base alloy gas tungsten arc welds

The welding characteristics of a commercial wrought alloy with a nominal composition of Ni-29Co-28Cr-2.75Si were investigated. Gas tungsten arc weldments with filler metal matching the chemistry of the alloy were found to have limited room-temperature ductility in the as-welded condition. Since welding is the main fabrication method of this alloy, the welding and postweld heat treatment (PWHT) characteristics were examined to provide guidelines for fabrication in the field. Metallographic evaluation revealed that the weld metal was characterized by the distribution of a continuous eutectic phase consisting primarily of (Si,Ti)_xNi_y The continuous eutectic phase in the as-welded deposit, which caused poor ductility of the welds, was successfully reduced or removed with proper PWHT. The PWHT is necessary if cold forming of a weldment is required after welding or if adequate joint ductility is a design requirement. The recommended PWHT temperature is 1050 °C.     

Distortion control in welding by mechanical tensioning

Abstract

This paper investigates the potential of mechanical tensioning (MT) to reduce the magnitude of residual stresses in welds and to eliminate buckling distortion. Both friction stir (FSW) and arc welds have been produced from the aluminium alloy AA2024, with different levels of tensile stress applied along the weld line either during or after welding. The resulting welds have been characterised in terms of out of plane distortion, residual stresses and microstructure. Buckling distortion was eliminated by stretching plates to between 35 and 70% of the yield stress of the material during welding. For each set of welding parameters investigated, an optimum tensioning stress has been identified, which eliminates the tensile residual stress peak across the weld zone, along with distortion. This optimum tensioning stress increases in line with the heat input of the welding process. When MT stresses are increased beyond this optimum value, then distortion arises once more and a band of compressive stress is formed across the weld zone.     

Influence of local heat treatment on residual stresses in electron beam welding

Abstract

Electron beam welding (EBW), as a high performance welding method, is also subject to requirements of high integrity welds which particularly include residual stresses affecting distortion and fatigue behaviour. In this context multiple beam technique may provide new applications of specific thermal weld treatment. The present work introduces a promising method of local post-heating in a certain distance to the current welding location applying multiple beams for the reduction in residual stresses in EB welded sheet metals. The conducted investigations include finite element analysis (FEA) and stress measurements in the weld seam area. Using a systematic approach within the FEA decisive process parameters are optimised with reference to the achievable reduction in residual stress. All simulation results are validated by experiments applying strain gauges for the stress measurement. Both simulations and experiments revealed a considerable decrease in residual stress achievable by appropriate positioning of additional heat sources combined with the right power input and beam focusing.     

Coupled effect of heat input and beam oscillation on mechanical properties of alloy 718 electron beam weldments

Abstract

Autogenous full penetration electron beam welds were made on alloy 718 with and without beam oscillation technique. Weldments were subjected to two types of post-weld heat treatments: direct aging (DA) and solution treatment at 980°C followed by aging (STA). When the welds were prepared using different heat inputs in the welding processes with and without beam oscillation, the influence of beam oscillation could not be studied in isolation but the coupled effect of heat input and beam oscillation was studied. Laves particles were finer in size and lower in amount in unoscillated welds compared with those in beam oscillated welds subjected to DA condition. δ phase needles were observed around Laves particles in the welds subjected to STA condition. The amount of Laves particles was less and that of δ phase was more in unoscillated welds compared with those in beam oscillated welds subjected to STA condition. Unoscillated weldments exhibited longer fatigue lives compared with beam oscillated weldments in both DA and STA conditions owing to less amount of Laves in the former. Weldments in STA condition had longer lives compared with those in DA condition. The role of δ phase needles in fatigue life could not be identified.     

Evaluation of flow properties in weldments of vanadium alloys using novel indentation technique

Abstract

A new approach, known as automated ball indentation testing, was successfully employed to determine the flow properties of gas tungsten arc and electron beam welds of V–4Cr–4Ti and V–5Cr–5Ti alloys. The results showed clear distinction among the properties of the fusion zone, heat affected zone, and base metal in both welds of the two alloys. The two welds of both vanadium alloys in the as welded condition showed strengthening (as well as hardening) of fusion zone and heat affected zone (compared with base metal), with the fusion zone having higher strength than the heat affected zone. However, the gas tungsten arc welds of both alloys, after a post-weld heat treatment of 950°C for 2 h, showed a recovery of properties. These measurements correlated reasonably well with the reported recovery of the Charpy impact properties of the welds after the post-weld heat treatment.     

Measured residual stresses and integrity of pipeline girth welds

Abstract

Pipeline girth welds were made by manual metal arc and semiautomatic flux cored arc welding processes, both without post-weld heat treatment. The residual stresses in these welds were measured by neutron diffraction on ANSTO’s strain scanner, Kowari. The two welds had similar residual stress values and profiles. An integrity assessment of the welded branch connection was performed with a conservative estimate based on the measured values of residual stress, and values of residual stress predicted by BS 7910. The critical crack size based on the measurements was almost twice as large, showing the value of these measurements.     

Effect of Isothermal Heat Treatment on Mechanical Properties of WC-17Co Coatings

利用超音速火焰喷涂技术在Ni718合金表面制备WC-17Co涂层,然后进行150℃/10 h,300℃/10 h和450℃/10 h恒温热处理。利用纳米压痕和显微压痕的方法研究热处理过程对涂层显微硬度、弹性模量和断裂韧性的影响,利用Almen试片曲率法计算试片中残余应力的变化。结果表明,150,300和450℃的热处理过程未对WC-17Co涂层的组织和结构特征造成显著地影响;涂层的显微硬度、弹性模量和断裂韧性随热处理温度的升高而降低;涂层机械性能随温度升高而降低的变化趋势是由涂层残余压应力的变化特征引起的。     

Effects of zonal heat treatment on residual stresses and mechanical properties of electron beam welded TC4 alloy plates

Zonal heat treatment(ZHT) was conducted in situ to 14.5 mm-thick TC4 alloy plates by means of defocused electron beam after welding. The effects of ZHT on residual stresses, microstructures and mechanical properties of electron beam welded joints were investigated. Experimental results show residual stresses after welding are mostly relieved through ZHT, and the maximum values of longitudinal tensile stress and transverse compressive stress reduce by 76% and 65%, respectively. The tensile strength and ductility of welded joint after ZHT at slow scanning velocity are improved because of the reduction of residual stress and the microstructural changes of the base and weld metal. ZHT at fast scanning velocity is detrimental to the ductility of welded joint, which is resulted from insufficiently coarsened alpha phase in the fusion zone and the appearance of martensite in the base metal.     

Effects of evolution of nanoscale copper precipitation and copper content on mechanical properties of high-strength steel weld metal

Nanoscale copper precipitation in high-strength weld metal was characterised by using atom probe tomography (APT) and transmission electron microscopy. In as-deposited zone, there was no copper precipitation. During welding thermal cycling, nanoscale copper of 2–3?nm in radius precipitated with face-centred cubic (FCC) and body-centred cubic (BCC) structure. During post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), FCC copper precipitate became coarsen and BCC transformed into FCC. The highest hardness was in the reheated zone which subjected to the peak temperature below 500°C; while the lowest hardness was both in deposited zone and the reheated zone which subjected to the peak temperature greater than 810°C. After PWHT, the hardness became homogenous as well as decreased. With increasing copper content, the hardness was increased and the toughness was slightly decreased. After PWHT, the toughness decreased due to the change in the structure of copper precipitates.     

Residual stresses,microstructure and tensile properties in Ti–6Al–4V friction stir welds

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a systematic investigation of residual stresses as a function of welding speed in a set of Ti–6Al–4V friction stir welds. The investigation focuses on residual stress but links these data with microstructural information derived from micrographs and hardness measurements as well as mechanical testing results. Residual stresses were determined using energy dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction, which allows phase specific stresses to be distinguished. The data presented in this paper demonstrate that welds with high tensile properties can be obtained, which also have relatively low peak tensile residual stress values of ～30% of the tensile strength. The data also show a clear correlation between heat input and the width of the residual stress profile.     

In situ neutron diffraction measurement of strain relaxation in welds during heat treatment

Neutron diffraction (ND) is commonly used to investigate the stress redistribution before and after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) in welded structures. However, there is a lack of information on the evaluations of strains during PWHT. The present work employed in situ ND to measure the relaxation of residual strains during conventional PWHT in multi-pass high-strength low-alloy steel welds. It was found that strain relaxation occurs principally during the heating stage of the heat treatment. The findings have important economic bearings and can be used to characterise comparable material combinations and optimise the PWHT process for high-strength low-alloy weld joints. This unique information also provides a valuable benchmark for the finite element modelling of this complex process.