Information system development agility as organizational learning

Information System Development (ISD) agility is concerned with why and how ISD organizations sense and respond swiftly as they develop and maintain Information System applications. We outline a theory of ISD agility that draws upon a model of IT innovation and organizational learning. The theory adopts March's concepts of exploration and exploitation to investigate agility in the context of ISD organizations. Depending on their learning focus, ISD organizations make choices as to what sensing and responding swiftly means. This is reflected in how they value speed in relation to other ISD process goals, including quality, cost, risk and innovative content. The paper examines two specific Research Propositions: (1) ISD organizations locate themselves into different innovation regimes with respect to their need for exploration and exploitation, and (2) their perceptions of agility differ in those regimes as reflected in their process goal priorities. We validate these propositions through an empirical investigation of changes in ISD organizations' process goals and innovation practices over a period of over 4 years (1999–2003), during which time they shied away from exploration to exploitation while innovating with Internet computing. These ISD organizations viewed agility differently during the studied time periods as reflected in how they traded innovative content or speed vis-à-vis the other process goals of cost, risk, and product quality. In conclusion, this paper discusses implications for future research on agility in ISD organizations.     

Information system development activities and inquiring systems: an integrating framework

This article presents a framework that maps information system development (ISD) activities on systems for the creation of knowledge. This work addresses the relevant and persisting problem of improving the chances of ISD success. The article builds upon previous research on knowledge aspects of ISD, abandoning the idea of a monolithic approach to knowledge and presenting a pluralistic approach based on the idea that different inquiring systems can support micro-level ISD activities. The article is divided into two parts. The first part presents the theoretical development of the framework based on ISD literature and on Churchman's (1971) inquiring systems. The second part presents the use of the framework in an ISD project. The case is used to show the applicability of the framework and to highlight the advantages of this approach. The main theoretical implication is that the framework provides a new way to see the development of a system in terms of the knowledge created in the process. The main practical implication of the framework is that it improves the managers' ability to guide ISD activities as knowledge activities embedded in a knowledge process, a crucial element in development projects.     

Team leader strategies for enabling collaboration technology adaptation: team technology knowledge to improve globally distributed systems development work

Active management of team adaptation of collaboration technologies offers an important lever for influencing success rates in distributed project work, particularly in settings characterized by high task interdependence, such as information systems development (ISD). Substantial uncertainty exists as to how a leader might influence such technology adaptation during project work. Prior research indicates that a major leader resource to accomplish technology adaptation in these settings would be team technology knowledge (TTK). This empirical field study develops a five-factor model of strategies regarding awareness of TTK that team leaders take in intervening to affect technology adaptation in distributed ISD projects. The analysis indicates insights into when and why these strategies are effective and how they relate to each other as well as the leader's awareness of TTK. The study provides a way for ISD team leaders to approach improving team collaboration from a socio-technical perspective as well as insights into potential levers for improving team technology adaptation and the efficacy of ISD projects.     

Interactive and diagnostic uses of management control systems in IS projects: Antecedents and their impact on performance

We attempted to determine how formal management control systems (MCS) are used by project managers in IS development (ISD) contexts. This involved investigating the antecedents of two types of project MCS use (interactive and diagnostic), and their direct and moderated impact on project performance. PLS analysis of data collected in a survey of 93 projects indicated that project managers’ level of discretion positively affected their level of interactive use of project MCS but did not influence their diagnostic use. Our findings also showed that interactive use of MCS enhanced performance when task uncertainty (task novelty and complexity) of an ISD was high, but worsened it when task uncertainty was low. Finally, diagnostic use of MCS apparently increased project performance when an ISD task uncertainty was low, but did not reduce it when task uncertainty was high. Overall, these results were stable across different size projects.     

An Exploration of Impact of Cognitive Elaboration on Learning in ISD Projects

Stakeholder learning has been considered crucial for effective participation and the success of information system development (ISD). However, little guidance has been offered as an operational method to facilitate learning in ISD settings. We argue that “cognitive elaboration” (CE) is a helpful strategy for developing effective learning in client–developer interactions in ISD efforts. Two types of learning are investigated: model-building (MB) and model-maintenance (MM). The current study investigated whether CE performed by stakeholders themselves in client–developer interaction led to their MB rather than MM learning. In addition, an alternative hypothesis has been explored: whether mere communication activities may induce learning. Fifty individuals in seven ongoing software development projects in four organizations were examined. For each project, two meetings in which clients and developers participated were observed. The empirical results demonstrated that stakeholders in an ISD process who have engaged in CE themselves are more likely to experience MB learning; and that mere communication does not account for MB learning. An insignificant link between CE and MM learning was found. This study deepens our understanding about IS–user interactions. Limitations of the current research and implications for future research are discussed.     

Factors affecting the success of Open Source Software

With the rapid rise in the use of Open Source Software (OSS) in all types of applications, it is important to know which factors can lead to OSS success. OSS projects evolve and transform over time; therefore success must be examined longitudinally over a period of time. In this research, we examine two measures of project success: project popularity and developer activity, of 283 OSS projects over a span of 3 years, in order to observe changes over time. A comprehensive research model of OSS success is developed which includes both extrinsic and intrinsic attributes. Results show that while many of the hypothesized relationships are supported, there were marked differences in some of the relationships at different points in time lending support to the notion that different factors need to be emphasized as the OSS project unfolds over time.     

Social interactions of information systems development teams: a performance perspective

We report results from a longitudinal study of information systems development (ISD) teams. We use data drawn from 60 ISD teams at 22 sites of 15 Fortune 500 organizations to explore variations in performance relative to these teams' social interactions. To do this, we characterize ISD as a form of new product development and focus on team-level social interactions with external stakeholders. Drawing on cluster analysis, we identify five patterns of team-level social interactions and the relationships of these patterns to a suite of objective and subjective measures of ISD performance. Analysis leads us to report three findings. First, data indicate that no one of the five identified patterns maximizes all performance measures. Second, data make clear that the most common approach to ISD is the least effective relative to our suite of performance measures. Third, data from this study show that early indications of ISD project success do not predict actual outcomes. These findings suggest two issues for research and practice. First, these findings indicate that varying patterns of social interactions lead to differences in ISD team performance. Second, the findings illustrate that singular measures of ISD performance are an oversimplification and that multiple measures of ISD performance are unlikely to agree.     

Persistent problems and practices in information systems development

Abstract.  This paper identifies and discusses the persistent problems and development practices of information systems development (ISD). A critical examination and comparison of past times'traditional' and present-day 'web-based' development shows that contemporary ISD can be seen as an accentuated evolution – rather than a revolution – of well-known challenges and solutions. On this basis, (1) diversity; (2) knowledge; and (3) structure are identified as inherent and interrelated problems, while the practices for coping with these three challenges are (a) organization and specialization; (b) constant verbal communication and negotiation; and (c) pragmatic application of certain development methods and methodical concepts. We conclude that more research on the occurrence and interaction of problems and practices at, and between, different contextual levels (e.g. the business environment, company, project, team and individual levels) is needed to understand and assess (the gap between) 'observed practice' and 'good practice' across the many types of Web and non-Web ISD projects conducted today. We outline a possible research agenda to investigate these issues.     

Knowledge transfer in offshore outsourcing software development projects: an analysis of the challenges and solutions from German clients

Knowledge transfer is a critical factor in ensuring the success of offshore outsourcing software development projects and is, in many cases, neglected. Compared to in‐house or co‐located projects, however, such globally distributed projects feature far greater complexity. In addition to language barriers, factors such as cultural differences, time zone variance, distinct methods and practices, as well as unique equipment and infrastructure can all lead to problems that negatively impact knowledge transfer, and as a result, a project's overall success. In order to help minimise such risks to knowledge transfer, we conducted a research study based on expert interviews in six projects. Our study used German clients and focused on offshore outsourcing software development projects. We first identified known problems in knowledge transfer that can occur with offshore outsourcing projects. Then we collected best‐practice solutions proven to overcome the types of problems described. Afterward, we conducted a follow‐up study to evaluate our findings. In this subsequent stage, we presented our findings to a different group of experts in five projects and asked them to evaluate these solutions and recommendations in terms of our original goal, namely to find ways to minimise knowledge‐transfer problems in offshore outsourcing software development projects. Thus, the result of our study is a catalog of evaluated solutions and associated recommendations mapped to the identified problem areas.     

The interstitiality of IT risk: An inquiry into information systems development practices

Information systems development (ISD) has been part of the core of information systems for over 40 years. Throughout its history, the issue of risk has been closely related to ISD projects, and significant efforts have been made by researchers and practitioners to improve their quality. While important headway has been made in assessing and resolving ISD risk, the literature shows that new and salient risks emerge outside the scope of extant risk management regimes. As a consequence, organizations still struggle with leveraging new technology as projects continue to fail at almost the same rate, albeit for different reasons. Understood as the distinction between reality and possibility, risk is inherently intertwined with practice and rooted in the knowledge, goals, power, and values of specific actors in particular contexts. Hence, to understand how risks emerge, we present a longitudinal case study in which we trace the origin and locus of risks in contemporary ISD practices. We draw on these insights to theorize information technology risk as increasingly interstitial, originating from sources positioned in between established practices and therefore outside the scope of conventional risk analyses. In conclusion, we discuss interstitial risks as an important form of emergent risk with implications for both research and practice.     

Enhancing enterprise agility by deploying agile drivers, capabilities and providers

Agility is perceived as the dominant competitive vehicle for all organizations in an uncertain and ever-changing business environment. When embracing agility, important questions must be asked. What precisely is agility and how can it be measured? How can one adopt the appropriate agile enablers to develop agility? How can one effectively assist in enhancing agility?For an enterprise to achieve agility, it is critical to create an effective integrated procedure within the business that coordinates and ensures that the agility providers can satisfy the agility capabilities and cope with drivers, ultimately transforming all of these attributes into strategic competitive edges. However, the existing literature on enterprise agility has failed to sufficiently address the relevant perspectives in such analyzes. The relationship matrix in the quality function deployment (QFD) method provides an excellent tool for deploying important concepts and linking processes. This report suggests a new agility development method for dealing with the interface and alignment issues among the agility drivers, capabilities and providers using the QFD relationship matrix and fuzzy logic. A fuzzy agility index (FAI) for an enterprise composed of agility capability ratings and a total relation-weight with agility drivers was developed to measure the agility level of an enterprise. This report also describes how this robust approach has been applied to develop agility in a Taiwanese information technology (IT) product and service enterprise. This development project revealed that the proposed framework and procedures can enhance the agility of an enterprise as well as ensure a competitive edge.     

Project failure <Emphasis Type="Italic">en masse</Emphasis>: a study of loose budgetary control in ISD projects

This paper investigates the tightness of budgetary control over projects in a large systems development multinational. This represents a case of extreme information systems development (ISD) failure en masse, where all but two of the 22 projects in a business unit went over budget, causing senior executives to refocus their strategic priorities and cancel all current and potential projects that followed. This study focuses specifically on the two best performing (12 and 4% under budget) and worst performing (223 and 320% over budget) of these projects. Using a framework drawn from control systems theory, this study examines the ‘tightness’ of budgetary control exerted over each project, and what was done or could have been done to avert such failure. The study then identifies a set of emerging factors affecting tight budgetary control in ISD.     

Exploring the interaction effects of social capital

Most social capital studies either treat the three dimensions of social capital as parallel or hypothesize that causal relationships exist among them. We attempt to further explore the interaction effects between paired dimensions of social capital. In the context of information system development (ISD) projects, we propose direct and interaction effects of different dimensions of social capital on process and product performance. A survey of system developers indicates that all three proposed interaction effects on process performance are significant but with different patterns. Only one (structural and relational) interaction effect is found to have an effect on product performance. Academic and practical implications are discussed.     

Enterprise agility and the enabling role of information technology

In turbulent environments, enterprise agility, that is, the ability of firms to sense environmental change and respond readily, is an important determinant of firm success. We define and deconstruct enterprise agility, delineate enterprise agility from similar concepts in the business research literature, explore the underlying capabilities that support enterprise agility, explicate the enabling role of information technology (IT) and digital options, and propose a method for measuring enterprise agility. The concepts in this paper are offered as foundational building blocks for the overall research program on enterprise agility and the enabling role of IT.     

A taxonomy of political processes in systems development

Significant resources invested in information system development (ISD) are wasted due to political manoeuvres. Prior research on ISD politics has contributed mainly through theoretical development and case studies. This has enhanced understanding of relevant concepts, political tactics and conditions facilitating politics. However, there is limited understanding of the different processes through which politics unfold. This paper uses 89 ISD projects to develop a taxonomy of political processes in ISD. The taxonomy includes three distinct processes: Tug of War, wherein multiple parties strive to gain project control; Obstacle Race, which involves efforts to resist and pursue the project; and Empire Building, wherein the project is used as an instrument to enhance political or resource bases. The taxonomy is explained using the non‐proponents' view of the project and the balance of power between system's proponents and non‐proponents. We also discuss the emergent taxonomy's implications for how politics can be managed and studied.     

A model of information systems development project performance

abstract. Performance in information systems development (ISD) projects can be critical to business success. But, while project performance has been the subject of much debate, there has been little empirical research into its determinants. A survey of IS projects in the UK and New Zealand is analysed to test hypotheses concerning performance in terms of both project completion and budget (time-cost) variances. Subsequently, a secondary analysis of the findings is used to build a more complete empirical model of project performance. The paper helps to develop the theory of IS development project performance and also has significant implications for practice. Discussion of the findings highlights the importance of project team dynamics, risk management, senior management support for strategic projects and user participation in ensuring successful IS project performance.     

Why situational method engineering is useful to information systems development

Effective methods and methodologies for building information systems (IS) remain crucial to building successful IS. This paper investigates the use of situational method engineering for IS development (ISD) projects in a professional bureaucracy. This specialist organization methodology (SOM) is built starting with the philosophy of ISD moving through to flexible, amethodical implementation methods, a proposed instance of situational method engineering that is targeted towards professional bureaucracies. An in‐depth philosophical discussion of the ontological, epistemological, research methodological and ethical underpinnings of SOM are outlined, in addition to its limitations, to develop the building blocks of a methodology to implement within a professional bureaucracy organization ISD scenario. Amethodical ISD will be introduced as the appropriate way to implement this developed methodology to build a successful IS. The contribution of this paper is to detail how to develop a philosophically consistent methodology for a specific organizational environment (in this case, using the specific organizational example of a professional bureaucracy) that, when combined with developers and tools, can create a method to be applied to build an IS that has a greater possibility of successful organizational adoption than an IS built using a method devised using more common IS method engineering approaches.     

Network ties and the success of open source software development

Prior network-based research on open source software (OSS) development has focused on the benefit of network ties and assumed all network ties play the same role. We adopt a fine-grained view of network relations to investigate the impact of network ties on the success of OSS development. Through examining the development of OSS projects hosted by SourceForge, we find that co-membership among project teams is an effective mechanism for building network ties, through which knowledge and expertise flows across projects in OSS community and, therefore, contributes to the success of OSS development. However, network ties among projects not only confer benefit, but also incur various cost, and due to the different growth patterns of cost and benefit, network ties have a diminishing return to project success. In addition, we find network ties of leader–follower type and follower–leader type are more beneficial to OSS success than other types of ties, and network ties connecting to projects of later development stages are more beneficial than those connecting to projects of earlier stages. Our study provides useful guidelines and suggestions as to how to leverage the knowledge and expertise of others for successful development of OSS projects.