Cook Yield, Texture and Gel Ultrastructure of Model Beef Batters as Affected by Low Levels of Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc Chloride

Effects of 0.05% CaCl₂, MgCl₂, or ZnCl₂, with or without 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), were investigated in high fat (HF; 30% fat) or low fat (LF; 10% fat) model beef batters. Cook yield (CY), texture, and gel ultrastructure were evaluated. With STPP, CaCl₂ increased CY, and in the absence of STPP, ZnCl₂ decreased CY and cohesiveness (p<0.05). Low-fat, ZnCl₂-treated batters without STPP had the lowest (p<0.05) hardness. Addition of STPP resulted in a homogeneous matrix in HF batters. In MgCl₂-treated HF batters, protein film surrounding fat globules had greater integrity than control, CaCl₂ or ZnCl₂ treatments. In ZnCl₂-treated HF batters (without STPP) a protein sheet was present without evidence of film encased droplets. Low-fat batters with STPP had finer, more porous networks than those without STPP.     

Protein Extractability of Turkey Breast and Thigh Muscle with Varying Sodium Chloride Solutions as Affected by Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc Chloride

Ground turkey breast and thigh muscle were extracted with various NaCl solutions with or without added CaCl₂, MgCl₂, or ZnCl₂ (0.05%). Protein solubility was increased by CaCl₂ and decreased by ZnCl₂ in each muscle type. At 4% NaCl, MgCl₂ increased thigh myosin solubility by 30%, compared to the control, whereas CaCl₂ had no effect. At 2% and 4% NaCl, breast myosin was not affected by MgCl₂ or CaCl₂. Myosin was not detected for either muscle type when ZnCl₂ was used. All three salts increased breast actin solubility but only MgCl₂ increased thigh actin solubility. The CaCl₂ resulted in the highest overall protein solubility and MgCl₂ resulted in the highest thigh myosin and actin solubility at 4% NaCl.     

Effect of chloride salts on protein extraction and interfacial protein film formation in meat batters

Six comminuted chicken breast meat mixes and six meat batters were made with isoionic NaCl (25 g kg^?1), MgCl₂, CaCl₂, KCl, LiCl (IS = 0.43) and 15 g kg^?1 NaCl (IS = 0.26). The quantity and type of proteins extracted and used for interfacial protein film (IPF) formation was determined and related to batter stability. The monovalent salts produced IPF which differed in individual protein content between salts but which all contained significantly larger amounts of protein (P < 0.01) than those using divalent salts. MgCl₂ extracted more protein than CaCl₂ and produced a different protein profile in the IPF. However, MgCl₂ formed unstable raw batters whereas CaCl₂ did not. In addition, a simple, rapid method for extracting and quantifying proteins from meat batters was developed to assist in direct determination of the actual soluble protein uptake by the fat phase during comminution.     

Textural properties and microstructure of low-fat and sodium-reduced meat batters formulated with gellan gum and dicationic salts

Instrumental texture characteristics of low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters formulated with other salts (KCl and MgCl₂ or CaCl₂) with gellan gum were evaluated. Fat and sodium reduction through incorporation of gellan gum and either of the dicationic salts produced less rigid, more ductile structures. Inclusion of magnesium chloride resulted in better performance, whereas addition of calcium chloride resulted in less desirable properties. The dicationic salts level used probably inhibited the gellan gum thermoreversible properties, affecting its water holding properties. Microstructural differences between the dicationic salt treatments were apparently due to the effect of dicationic salt concentration on myofibrillar protein extraction and solubilization, and gellan gum gelation properties. Use of magnesium chloride in tandem with gellan gum in the studied low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters effectively compensated for the structural differences caused by fat and sodium reduction.     

Impact of divalent salts and bovine gelatin on gel properties of phosphorylated gelatin from the skin of unicorn leatherjacket

The impact of zinc chloride (ZnCl₂) and calcium chloride (CaCl₂) as well as bovine gelatin (BG) on the gel strength of phosphorylated fish gelatin (PFG) from the skin of unicorn leatherjacket was investigated. The gel strength of PFG increased with increasing concentrations of ZnCl₂ and CaCl₂ (2.5–40 μmol L⁻¹). A higher gel strength was observed with CaCl₂, compared with ZnCl₂. The gel strength of PFG with 20 μmol L⁻¹ CaCl₂ increased by 15.7%, compared to the control gel. Nevertheless, at higher concentration (40 μmol L⁻¹) of both salts, gel strength of PFG decreased. Hardness of gels decreased with increasing PFG content (P < 0.05). Nevertheless, no differences in hardness were found amongst gels with BG/PFG ratios of 4:0 and 3:1 (P ≥ 0.05). Thus, PFG could be used in combination with CaCl₂ to substitute for BG at a level of 25%.     

The influence of additives on properties of heat‐induced gels from salt‐soluble proteins extracted from goose

Calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and phosphates are important additives to improve product quality during meat processing. Response surface methodology was used to study the influence of CaCl₂ and phosphates on the hardness, water‐holding capacity (WHC) and ultra‐structure of salt‐soluble goose meat protein gels. The results show that the hardness and WHC of salt‐soluble protein gels increased significantly when CaCl₂ concentration was increased and phosphates were added. Scanning electron microscopy showed that tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) had a greater impact on the cross‐linking and pore diameter of the gel networks than sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP). At the 0.02 m and 4:3:2 of CaCl₂ concentration and the ratio of TSPP, SHMP and STPP, hardness and WHC values were 114.55 gf and 96.65%, which corresponded to the prediction value of our model. Further results showed that the hardness and WHC of gels reached the maximum with 0.3% of phosphates levels.     

Effects of Chloride Salts on Appearance, Palatability, and Storage Traits of Flaked and Formed Beef Bullock Restructured Steaks

Restructured steaks made with 0.5 or 1.0% KCl, 0.5% MgCl₂ and 0.5% CaCl₂ were more desirable and darker red in raw color than blends formulated with 0.5 or 1.0% NaCl. Visual properties of raw steaks containing 0.5 or 1.0% chloride salt were scored higher than the control (no salt added) in 14 of 16 orthogonal contrast mean comparisons. Steaks made with 1.0% CaCl₂ or MgCl₂ were rated lower than the control in flavor desirability and overall satisfaction ratings. Control, 0.5 or 1.0% NaCl or 0.5 and 1.0% KCl steaks were not different in juiciness, tenderness, flavor desirability or overall satisfaction ratings. Steaks made with chloride salts were rancid after 70 days frozen storage. Results showed steaks made with KCl were superior to steaks formulated with CaCl₂ or MgCl₂.     

Biochemical and sensory changes in dry-cured ham salted with partial replacements of NaCl by other chloride salts

The reduction of the content of sodium chloride in dry-cured ham was studied in to prevent the problems related to high sodium intake (i.e. the hypertension). One of the possibilities to reduce the sodium content is the partial replacement of sodium chloride by mixtures of potassium, magnesium and calcium chloride salts. The effect of two salting formulations (formulation II: 50% NaCl-50% KCl and formulation III: 55% NaCl, 25% KCl, 15 CaCl₂ and 5 MgCl₂) on the protease activity through the dry-curing process and on the sensory characteristics of the final product was evaluated and compared to those of control hams (formulation I, 100% NaCl). Sensory attributes were all affected in the hams containing CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ while hams containing 50% KCl and NaCl (formulation II) were better valued, except for the attribute taste probably due to the potassium contribution to bitter taste.     

Effect of ageing on the properties of myofibrils of rabbit muscle

The effect of ageing of rabbit muscle at 4° and 15–18° on the extractability and adenosine triphosphatase activity of the myofibrils has been examined. The amount of protein extracted by M-KCL-4 mM sodium glycerophosphate (pH 6.2) and by 0.1 M sodium tetrapyrophosphate-4 mM MgCl₂-10 mM-KH₂PO₄ (pH 7.2) increased as the muscle aged. By using the amount of Ca²⁺ adenosine triphosphatase extracted, i.e. the enzyme associated with myosin, as a measure of the amount of myosin in the actomyosin extracted, it was possible to show that the buffered potassium chloride did not extract all the actomyosin from the myofibrils of pre-rigor muscle. As the muscle aged, more actomyosin was extracted, together with some tropomyosin. Pyrophosphate, however, extracted all the myosin from the pre-rigor muscle, and the increase in the protein extracted from aged muscle was due to actin and tropomyosin in addition to myosin. It is suggested that these changes are caused by a disruption of the Z-band structure during ageing, perhaps due to the hydrolysis of tropomyosin by proteolytic enzymes. The specific Ca²⁺ adenosine triphosphatase activity of the myofibrils was unaltered by ageing but the specific Mg²⁺-activated adenosine triphosphatase, i.e. the enzyme associated with actomyosin, was reduced by about one-third. This latter result may be caused by a change in the mode of linkage of actin to myosin.     

Effect of Nutriose on Rheological, Textural and Sensorial Characteristics of Spanish Muffins

The effect of fat replacement with Nutriose on the physical properties of Spanish muffin batter and baked muffins and on consumer acceptability was studied. In the muffin batter, replacement of fat by Nutriose increased the number of larger air bubbles, although the bubbles were not retained during baking. DSC analysis of the muffin batters revealed that the starch gelatinization temperature rose with increased fat replacement with Nutriose (100 % fat replacement with Nutriose increased T _o values by 6 °C in comparison to the control) (p?≤?0.05). The presence of Nutriose decreased the height and volume of the muffins and significantly reduced their hardness and springiness (p?≤?0.05). No significant differences between the control and the 50-%-fat-replacement muffin were found in the consumer acceptability test (p?>?0.05), indicating that Nutriose can be a suitable fat replacer up to the 50 % level.     

Effect of sodium,potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride salts on porcine muscle proteases

This study is focused on the effect of sodium chloride alternative salts (KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂) on porcine muscle proteases (cathepsins, dipeptidylpeptidases and aminopeptidases). In general, KCl exerted a very similar effect to NaCl for all the studied enzymes, while the effect of divalent salts (CaCl₂ and MgCl₂) was more pronounced. Cathepsins, dipeptidyl peptidase III, dipeptidyl peptidase IV and alanyl aminopeptidase activities were strongly inhibited by all the chloride salts especially by divalent ones. Dipeptidyl peptidase II and leucyl aminopeptidase were little affected and methionyl aminopeptidase was only inhibited by divalent salts. Dipeptidyl peptidase I was strongly activated by low concentrations of the chloride salts except NaCl. Arginyl aminopeptidase was activated by NaCl and KCl and low amounts of MgCl₂, while CaCl₂ showed a strong inhibitory effect. This is very important as these enzymes play important roles in dry-cured meats and their activity is, in general, regulated by sodium chloride. Thus, reductions in the sodium concentration with subsequent increases of other alternative cations may have relevant consequences on enzyme activity that should be taken into account when processing dry-cured meats.     

BALANCING MACROMINERAL COMPOSITION OF FRESH-PACK CUCUMBER PICKLES TO IMPROVE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY AND MAINTAIN FLAVOR1

The macromineral nutritional balance of fresh-pack dill cucumber pickles was improved without loss of flavor quality. A product with flavor acceptability equal to the original product was obtained if NaCl was reduced by 40%, from 2.0% to 1.2%. To replace the 0.8% reduction in NaCl 0.8% KCl was added. CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added proportionately to match the daily value (DV) of the added KCl. In addition to changes in mineral composition, low levels of both citric acid and hot pepper sauce were added to improve flavor acceptability. The flavor acceptability of dill pickles was rated higher (P <0.05) than the 2.0% NaCl control when the NaCl concentration was reduced 20% from 2.0 to 1.6%, and 0.4% KCl was added to replace the NaCl. Again, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added at a level which gave the same proportion of the DVs of these minerals as 0.4% KCl. The highest flavor acceptability in the product with 20% less NaCl was obtained when only citric acid was added as a flavor modifier.     

Use of a D-optimal mixture design to estimate the effects of diverse chloride salts on the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus

The effects of NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ and their mixtures on the ionic strength (IS) of the medium and the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus were studied by means of a D-optimal mixture experimental design with constrains (total salt concentration ≤ 9.0%, wt/vol) and the generalized z-value. The IS was linearly related to the concentrations of the diverse salts and its increase, for similar concentrations of salts, followed the order MgCl₂ > CaCl₂ > NaCl > KCl. Within the experimental region, the lag phase duration (λ) was mainly affected by NaCl and CaCl₂ and the interaction KCl with MgCl₂. The maximum specific growth rate (μ_max) decreased as NaCl (the highest effect), CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ increased (regardless of the presence or not of previous NaCl); low KCl concentrations had a stimulating effect on μ_max, but its overall effect showed a similar trend to the other salts. The maximum population reached (N_max) was the least affected parameter and decreased as NaCl and CaCl₂ concentrations increased regardless of the presence of the other salts. The equations that expressed the growth parameters as a function of the diverse chloride salts, within the limits assayed, were developed and the corresponding z- and harmonic Z-values were estimated.     

Combination treatment of high-pressure and CaCl2 for the reduction of sodium content in chicken meat batters: effects on physicochemical properties and sensory characteristics

A combination of high-pressure processing (HPP, 200 MPa, 10 min) and CaCl₂ (0.2%, w/w) on the cooking loss (CL), expressible moisture (EM), textural properties (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness and firmness) and sensory attributes of reduced-sodium (1.25% NaCl) chicken meat batters (RCMB) was investigated. The results revealed that combining HPP with CaCl₂ significantly decreased EM, elevated sensory properties and acted synergistically in reducing CL and improving hardness, chewiness and firmness, which enabled RCMB to obtain quality characteristics similar to those with high salt (2.5% NaCl) content. These changes brought about by combined HPP and CaCl₂ could be attributed to increased apparent viscosity and proportion of immobilised water, enhanced rheological (elastic) properties and a denser, homogeneous protein gel network with evenly dispersed small fat globules. It is interesting to take advantage of the synergy between moderate HPP and low concentrations of CaCl₂ to develop meat products with reduced sodium content.     

Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization behaviour of freeze-dried lactose-salt mixtures

Water sorption properties of freeze-dried lactose, lactose/CaCl₂, lactose/NaCl, lactose/MgCl₂, and lactose/KCl mixtures in their molar ratio of (9:1) were investigated. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) models were used to model water sorption properties. Water is known to function as a plasticizer, depressing the glass transition and facilitating crystallization. Crystallization in the present study resulted in loss of sorbed water from lactose. The crystallization of pure lactose and lactose/salt mixtures was observed at RVP?44.0% within 24 h. At RVP?54.4% water contents were higher in lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ mixtures than in pure lactose, lactose/NaCl, and lactose/KCl.Water content in pure lactose after crystallization was ?5.0%, suggesting that lactose crystallized as a mixture of α-lactose monohydrate and various anhydrous forms of α/β-lactose crystals. Anhydrous lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ had higher glass transition temperatures than lactose, but other salts (NaCl and KCl) with lactose gave lower glass transition than amorphous lactose. It seems that bivalent salts in mixtures with lactose gave a higher T_g than smaller monovalent ions. Salts delayed lactose crystallization. The effect on lactose crystallization was highest with calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and lowest with potassium chloride (KCl). It seems that different salts interacted with lactose to different extents. For water sorption, GAB model gave a better fit than BET model. Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization properties of lactose/salt mixtures should be considered in manufacturing and storage of dairy-based dehydrated materials.     

Influence of Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium Chloride on Thermal Properties of Beef Muscle

Sodium, potassium and magnesium chloride, at 1.25, 2.50 and 5.00%, were studied using differential scanning calorimetry. Increasing NaCl resulted in decrease in myosin transition temperature (T₁, first transition) and enthalpy (H₁); both showed significant (P<0.05) linear response. The sarcoplasmic proteins and collagen denaturation temperature (T₂, second transition) increased significantly over the control when 1.25% NaCl was added, but were the same as control when 2.5% and 5.0% were used. Actin denaturation temperature (T₃, third transition) tended to increase when NaCl was added, but enthalpy decreased. Potassium chloride showed similar effects to NaCl on T₁, T₂, H₁ and H₃. Increasing magnesium chloride had much more pronounced effect on decreasing second enthalpy compared to the monovalent salts. At 5% MgCl₂ T₁ increased significantly.     

Effect of brine salting at different pHs on the functional properties of cod muscle proteins after subsequent dry salting

Fillets of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) were wet-salted in brines of pH 6.5 and 8.5 containing different combinations of NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂, then dry-salted in NaCl. Proximate analyses, functional properties (water holding capacity and protein solubility) and hardness were determined in the dry-salted cod. The compositions of the protein fractions soluble in water and in 0.86 M sodium chloride were determined by SDS–PAGE. The composition and pH of the brines slightly affected the protein composition of the major extract constituents and the functional properties of the muscle after dry-salting. Brining at alkaline pH produced a larger variety of water-soluble proteins, particularly actin, than at pH 6.5. Furthermore, the compositions of the protein fractions extracted with 0.86 M NaCl were very similar for both pHs, irrespective of the composition of the brine; in this case, myosin heavy chains were absent in both extracts due to aggregation caused by a massive uptake of salt by the muscle.     

The effect of brine composition and pH on the yield and nature of water-soluble proteins extractable from brined muscle of cod (Gadus morhua)

Fillets of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) were held for 36 h in brines of pH 6.5 and 8.5, respectively, containing various combinations of NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂. Proximate analyses and chloride content were determined. Soluble muscle protein extracted in distilled water and protein released into the brine following salting was determined by SDS–PAGE. The soluble fraction was not affected by the presence of divalent salts or KCl in the brines, but it was affected by the initial pH. Both actin and myosin heavy chain (MHC) were released in pH 6.5 brines after immersion of the fish. On the other hand, an initial pH of 8.5 did not favour the release of these proteins. There was a smaller variety of remaining soluble proteins in salted muscle with an initial pH of 6.5, than with 8.5. However, this effect of the lower pH was offset to the extent that the ionic strength of the brine was higher.     

Crystallization Kinetics of Concentrated α,α-Trehalose and α,α-Trehalose/Salt Solutions Studied by Low-resolution 1H-Pulsed NMR

Crystallization kinetics of concentrated trehalose and trehalose/salt solutions were followed by proton ¹H) pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H p‐NMR). Three concentrations (66,70, and 72.5%) of trehalose and with the addition of ZnCl₂.2H₂O, CaCl₂.2H₂O, and MgCl₂.2H₂O were crystallized at 5,10,15,20, and 25 °C. Supercooling and molecular diffusion determined the crystallization rates. The highest rate of crystallization of 66,70, and 72.5% trehalose occurred at 20 °C, whereas the lowest rate occurred at 25 °C. The maximum solid content was higher at lower temperatures, as expected based on the higher supercooling values. Crystallization was delayed by the addition of salts and especially of CaCl₂.2H₂O.     

Marie Ménard apples with high polyphenol content and a low‐fat diet reduce 1,2‐dimethylhydrazine‐induced colon carcinogenesis in rats: Effects on inflammation and apoptosis

Inflammation may increase cancer risk, therefore, we studied whether polyphenol‐rich Marie Ménard (MM) apples with reported anti‐inflammatory activity prevent 1,2‐dimethylhydrazine (DMH)‐induced colon carcinogenesis in rats and, likewise whether high‐fat (HF) diet promoting carcinogenesis, may affect inflammation. DMH‐induced rats were fed for 15 weeks with: an HF diet (23% corn oil w/w); an HF diet containing 7.6% w/w lyophilized MM (apple diet (AD)); a low‐fat (LF) diet and an HF diet containing piroxicam (PXC) (0.01% w/w) as control. Mucin depleted foci (MDF), precancerous lesions in the colon, were dramatically reduced in the AD, LF, and PXC groups compared with the HF. Peritoneal macrophage activation, an index of systemic inflammation, was significantly decreased in the AD, LF, and PXC groups. TNF‐α, iNOS, IL‐1β, IL‐6 m‐RNA expression in the colon, as well as CD68 cells and plasmatic PGE2 were lower in the AD, but not in the LF group. Apoptosis in the MDF of both the AD and LF‐fed rats was significantly higher than in HF rats. In conclusion, AD has a strong chemopreventive effect, reducing inflammation, and increasing apoptosis, while the chemopreventive effect of the LF diet seems mediated mainly by increased apoptosis in MDF.