Energy system aspects of hydrogen as an alternative fuel in transport

Considering the enormous ecological and economic importance of the transport sector the introduction of alternative fuels—together with drastic energy efficiency gains—will be a key to sustainable mobility, nationally as well as globally. However, the future role of alternative fuels cannot be examined from the isolated perspective of the transport sector. Interactions with the energy system as a whole have to be taken into account. This holds both for the issue of availability of energy sources as well as for allocation effects, resulting from the shift of renewable energy from the stationary sector to mobile applications. With emphasis on hydrogen as a transport fuel for private passenger cars, this paper discusses the energy systems impacts of various scenarios introducing hydrogen fueled vehicles in Germany. It identifies clear restrictions to an enhanced growth of clean hydrogen production from renewable energy sources (RES). Furthermore, it points at systems interdependencies that call for a priority use of RES electricity in stationary applications. Whereas hydrogen can play an increasing role in transport after 2030 the most important challenge is to exploit short–mid-term potentials of boosting car efficiency.     

A hydrogen economy and its impact on the world as we know it

An assortment of governmental, technological, environmental, and economic factors has combined to spur renewed interest in alternatives to petroleum, and especially in hydrogen. While there is no clear consensus on the viability of the technology, governments and corporations alike have vigorous hydrogen research programs. The result is that hydrogen may stand on the verge of becoming a true successor to oil. A transition from oil to hydrogen would alter familiar global economic and political structures in profound ways. The ramifications will influence developed and developing nations, oil importers, and exporters alike. New alliances among governments, corporations, and other groups may challenge existing notions of governance. Although a hydrogen-based economy may be decades away, the vision for it requires near- and mid-term thinking to manage the transition smoothly. Further, hydrogen is only a metaphor; any change from the current oil economy will entail dramatic changes to the global status quo that must be planned for now.     

An economic survey of hydrogen production from conventional and alternative energy sources

A source of hydrogen is needed in the developing hydrogen economy, and many technologies are available for producing hydrogen from both conventional and alternative energy resources such as natural gas, coal, atoms, sunlight, wind, and biomass. The following paper summarizes the economics of producing hydrogen from each of these sources and gives an overview of the energy resource for each feedstock. The results of the analysis show that the most economical sources of hydrogen are coal and natural gas, with an estimated cost of 0.36–1.83 $/kg and 2.48–3.17 $/kg for each energy source, respectively. Alternative energy provides hydrogen at a higher cost; however, fossil fuel feedstock costs are increasing as technology enhancements are decreasing the cost of alternative energy sources, and therefore alternative energy sources may become more economical in the future.     

Energy consumption in Kuwait: Prospects and future approaches

In Kuwait, the consumption of oil, the country's main source of energy, is increasing year by year. In addition to the harsh climate and the rapid economic and construction growth in the country, there are further aspects of energy inefficiency. While 10% of the produced energy was being consumed locally in 1980, this percentage increased to 20% in 2005 and is expected to reach 40% by 2015. If this situation continues, the country will be forced to increase production or reduce exportation. Both options will cause serious problems to the country in meeting future energy demands due to its dependence on oil as a source of income, shortages of other energy resources, and the environmental care of the country.     

Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia: Energy policy and alternative energy

Energy is often known as the catalyst for development. Globally, the per capita consumption of energy is often used as a barometer to measure the level of economic development in a particular country. Realizing the importance of energy as a vital component in economic and social development, the government of Malaysia has been continuously reviewing its energy policy to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. Concentrated efforts are being undertaken to ensure the sustainability of energy resources, both depletable and renewable. The aim of this paper is to describe the various energy policies adopted in Malaysia to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. The role of both, non-renewable and renewable sources of energy in the current Five-Fuel Diversification Strategy energy mix will also be discussed. Apart from that, this paper will also describe the various alternative energy and the implementation of energy efficiency program in Malaysia.     

US states and energy efficiency: North Carolina's ‘quango’

This paper argues that energy efficiency remains an abstraction until actions produce significant results in the ways in which energy is produced and used. In the USA, such actions have depended historically on the private sector, with government taking an increasingly prominent role since the first energy crisis of the 1970s. Experience has shown that neither acting alone has been fully successful at realizing the economically and societally rational rate of implementation made possible by either the needs or the opportunities in energy. Recent developments in various states have begun to explore hybrid organizations - quasi-public and quasi-private - as ways to focus resources in productive applications. Four examples merit attention, with particular emphasis on the North Carolina Alternative Energy Corporation.     

Market penetration analysis of the use of hydrogen in the road transport sector of the Madrid region,using MARKAL

Nobody can doubt today that hydrogen will, in the not-too-distant future, represent a very significant percentage of the total energy used by the transport sector. This study therefore consists of the modelling and simulation of energy consumption, by type of vehicle and fuel or energetic vector, in the road transport sector of the Madrid Region, during the period 2010–2050, using the MARKAL model. It has been necessary to complete this model by adding numerous specifications in order to determine the features of the Madrid Region, the richest Region in Spain. For the purpose of the study, three growth scenarios, based on short-term energy forecasts made by different official organizations, have been proposed for the energy consumption of the road transport sector in the Region. The results show a profound change in the current situation as there is a significant decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels and an increase in that of alternative non-fossil fuels and hydrogen. The latter, in particular, will rise from 0.1% in the year 2010, to around 50% in the year 2050, which will mean a drastic drop in the sector's CO₂ and atmospheric pollutant emissions.     

Integrated energy strategy for the sustainable development of China

We propose in this paper an integrated energy strategy based on a systems approach to address the energy challenges and energy dilemma in China. First, we give a review of existing approaches to energy planning and strategic management, followed by a discussion on the major relationships among energy, economical, environmental and societal systems. Next, we present a conceptual system model with alternative solutions and clarify corresponding concepts. Based on the results, we propose, summarize, and present strategic ideas as policy implications for China’s decision makers. In conclusion, we determine that China should enhance strategic planning and regulation from a life cycle viewpoint of the whole society, prioritize energy saving, continuously improve incumbent energy, and rationally develop alternative energy.     

Multi-criteria evaluation of hydrogen system options

The paper gives an overview of the potential of multi-criteria assessment of hydrogen systems. With respective selection of the criteria that comprise the performance, environment and market indicators, the assessment procedure is adapted for the assessment of the selected options of the hydrogen energy systems and their comparison with new and renewable energy systems.     

Comparative substitution of butane by hydrogen/oxygen mixture in a domestic room heating convector

The search for new energy sources has a fundamental importance concerning better quality of life for the mankind. Looking for a substitute for the existing pollutant fueled heating equipment, the Hydrogen Group of the Federal University of Paraíba (Brazil), has studied the application of hydrogen to this purpose. This work shows performance tests realized with a convective commercial heater exchanger, adapted to be fueled by hydrogen and applied for the environmental heating. The study also compared its gain and efficiency using butane. The results showed that the commercial heat exchanger adapted for hydrogen has a high gain and efficiency taking into account fuel consumption and that can be improved if the suggested alterations are implemented.     

An alternative energy source from palm wastes industry for Malaysia and Indonesia

Malaysia and Indonesia are the largest producers of palm oil product. The palm oil industry has contributed the biggest income to the countries for many years. Moreover, palm oils has emerged as one of the most important oils in the world’s oils and the market of fats. About 90% of palm oil is used as food related products worldwide, and the other 10% is used for basic raw material for soap. There are more than a hundred palm oil processing mills in the two countries. As such, a lot of savings can be done by using the fiber and shell from the processing wastes as an alternative fuel for electricity generation for this industry. This paper deals with energy conversion from the fiber and shell of the industry wastes as an alternative energy source for the palm oil mill industry in the two countries mentioned. The study concentrates on using the fiber and shell obtained from the processing of palm oil as fuels for the boiler instead of fossil fuel. In addition, the possibility of excess air and fuel air ratio for the fiber and shell combustion process is also discussed. Furthermore, it has been found that the shell and fiber alone can supply more steam and electricity than is required. Some palm oil mills in Malaysia and Indonesia have applied this strategy successfully. The FELDA palm oil mill, with the capacity 30–60 tons FFB/h, in Sungai Tengi, Selangor, Malaysia has been selected for this research.     

Hydrogen supply chain architecture for bottom-up energy systems models. Part 1: Developing pathways

The integration of hydrogen energy systems in the overall energy system is an important and complex subject for hydrogen supply chain management. The efficiency of the integration depends on finding optimum pathways for hydrogen supply. Accordingly, energy systems modelling methods and tools have been implemented to obtain the best configuration of hydrogen processes for a defined system. The appropriate representation of hydrogen technologies becomes an important stage for energy system modelling activities. This study, split in consecutive parts, has been conducted to analyse how representative hydrogen supply pathways can be integrated in energy systems modelling. The current paper, the first part of a larger study, presents stylised pathways of hydrogen supply chain options, derived on the basis of a detailed literature review. It aims at establishing a reference hydrogen energy system architecture for energy modelling tools. The subsequent papers of the study will discuss the techno-economic assumptions of the hydrogen supply chain components for energy modelling purposes.     

Towards sustainable energy systems: The related role of hydrogen

The role of hydrogen in long run sustainable energy scenarios for the world and for the case of Germany is analysed, based on key criteria for sustainable energy systems. The possible range of hydrogen within long-term energy scenarios is broad and uncertain depending on assumptions on used primary energy, technology mix, rate of energy efficiency increase and costs degression (“learning effects”). In any case, sustainable energy strategies must give energy efficiency highest priority combined with an accelerated market introduction of renewables (“integrated strategy”). Under these conditions hydrogen will play a major role not before 2030 using natural gas as a bridge to renewable hydrogen. Against the background of an ambitious CO₂-reduction goal which is under discussion in Germany the potentials for efficiency increase, the necessary structural change of the power plant system (corresponding to the decision to phase out nuclear energy, the transformation of the transportation sector and the market implementation order of renewable energies (“following efficiency guidelines first for electricity generation purposes, than for heat generation and than for the transportation sector”)) are analysed based on latest sustainable energy scenarios.     

A hydrogen standard for future energy accounting?

Present methods of energy accounting include both primary energy and final energy consumption. Both these methods have inconsistencies, although today their impact is minor. Some level of inconsistency and approximation in energy accounting is unavoidable when energy inputs come from such heterogeneous sources. We argue that in the decades to come, renewable energy will probably come to dominate the energy supply system, with most from intermittent energy sources, particularly wind and solar. In such an energy system, existing measures will become increasingly irrelevant for tracking energy use over time, for assessing a renewable energy source’s technical potential, and in determining future energy infrastructure needs. Further, conversion of most primary electricity to a storable energy form will be needed, with some then perhaps converted back to electricity as needed. We propose that in this case energy production and demand, and technical potential for renewable energy sources, will be more accurately measured by use of a new energy accounting framework, based on the energy content of hydrogen.     

Blue sky mining: Strategy for a feasible transition in emerging countries from natural gas to hydrogen

Natural gas is often considered a transition fuel to a deep decarbonized world. However, for this to happen, new technologies should be fostered, among which a natural gas-based H₂ industry can become a key-option. This study tests the hypothesis that the development of a natural gas-based H₂ industry equipped with CO₂ capture can monetize natural gas remaining resources, mitigate CO₂ emissions and facilitate the transition to the renewable energy-based H₂. To do that, this study evaluates a stepwise strategy for setting up the development of H2, departing from the idle capacity in the existing natural gas industry, to progressively create a H₂ independent supply. Findings indicated that this strategy can be feasible, according to the case study assessed at relatively moderate crude oil prices. Nevertheless, CO₂ storage can become a constraint to deal with the co-produced CO₂ from the steam methane reforming units. Therefore, it is worth developing storage options.