Electrochemical and surface modifications on N+-ion-implanted 316 L stainless steel

The effect of nitrogen-ion implantation on the electrochemical behaviour of 316 L stainless steel in a simulated physiological solution (HBSS-Hanks Balanced Salt Solution) was studied by open-circuit potential versus time and cyclic polarization techniques, with the aim of characterizing the surfaces and choosing the best nitrogen-ion fluence. Three fluences (1015, 1016 and 1017 ions/cm2) were used. The 1016 ions/cm2 N+ fluence improves the corrosion resistance of the 316 L stainless steel.     

Hardening of 316L stainless steel by laser surface alloying

The goal of this study is to investigate different hardening routes for 316L stainless steel by laser surface alloying. We have investigated the formation of iron-chromium carbides by SiC or carbon incorporation, the alloying with submicronic particles of TiC and the precipitation of titanium carbide from mixtures of Ti and SiC. For each hardening route we present the microstructures and the hardness of the processed surface alloys and the conditions leading to the best compromise between highest hardness, best homogeneity and lowest occurrence of cracks. From these results it can be reasoned that hardening by iron-chromium carbides is the best hardening route and that this surface alloy might be a good candidate for tribological applications.     

模具钢表面激光沉积316L不锈钢的组织转变及差异性

为了揭示Cr系注塑模具钢表面采用异种材料沉积过程的组织演变机制,在两种模具钢表面沉积316L不锈钢,利用扫描电镜、电子探针、X射线衍射仪等表征微观组织及硬度特征,并结合熔凝动态过程及Schaeffler相图分析界面及沉积层区组织转变机理。结果表明:由于基体元素组成及组成相分布的差异,导致在沉积层界面的组织转变呈现明显差异性。高Cr莱氏体钢组织过渡区厚度为200μm,过渡区组织形态和组成相明显区别于沉积层其他区域,碳化物在过渡区经历了先局部聚集性长大、之后枝晶间均匀分布等复杂变化;而P20钢沉积层的组织过渡区厚度小于20μm,组织以枝晶方式生长且与沉积层非过渡区连通,同时枝晶内发现了弥散分布的颗粒状碳化物。在熔池中C,Cr,Ni等元素的动态变化作用下,两种钢沉积层的非过渡区组成相也呈现明显差异,高Cr莱氏体钢和P20钢沉积层的基体相分别为奥氏体相与马氏体相,由此导致其硬度值变化范围分别为295~325HV_0.2和500~575HV_0.2。     

The behaviour of 316L stainless steel in hydrogen

Hydrogen embrittlement of 316L type austenitic stainless steel has been studied by charging thin tensile specimens (0.2 mm thick) with hydrogen through cathodic polarization. The effects of hydrogen on the phase transition and the relative role of the metallurgical variables is discussed. Room temperature cathodic charging of unstressed specimens produces intergranular and secondary transgranular cracks along crystallographic planes. Severe grain boundary spelling has been observed at longer times of charging indicating that high stresses were formed. The surface cracking that was observed during the ageing is consistent with the development of high tensile surface stresses. TEM studies of the fracture surfaces of both annealed and sensitized, fine and coarse grain size, have revealed high dislocation structure. Thin plates of hydrogen induced (h c p)-martensite was observed. These plates appear in a heavily faulted region. The evidence of faults within-plates indicates that the overlapping stacking fault mechanism for the austenite to transformation is in agreement with strain induced. The results of the tensile tests while undergoing cathodic charging show that the additional sensitization treatment and coarse-grained samples, lower the mechanical properties. The fracture surfaces of the sensitized steel contains regions of intergranular fracture where the micromechanism of the failure is microvoid nucleation and coalescence along grain boundaries. Finally, the microstructures are connected to various modes of cracking.     

Anticoagulant surface of 316 L stainless steel modified by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization

Polished 316 L stainless steel (SS) was first treated with air plasma to enhance surface hydrophilicity and was subsequently allowed to react with 2-(4-chlorosulfonylphenyl)ethyltrimethoxysilane to introduce an atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) initiator. Accordingly, the surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization of polyethylene glycol methacrylate (PEGMA) was carried out on the surface of the modified SS. The grafting progress was monitored by water contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. The polymer thickness as a function different polymerization times was characterized using a step profiler. The anticoagulative properties of the PEGMA modified SS surface were investigated. The results showed enhanced anticoagulative to acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) blood after grafting PEGMA on the SS surface.     

表面纳米化对316L不锈钢性能的影响

对316L不锈钢进行表面机械研磨处理(SMAT),研究表面组织变化对其硬度和在0.5 mol/LNaCl介质中腐蚀性能的影响.结果表明:通过SMAT可以在316L不锈钢表面制备出纳米结构层,随着处理时间的增加,表面纳米晶组织逐渐由单一的奥氏体相过渡到奥氏体与马氏体两相共存;表面纳米化和马氏体相变能够明显地提高316L不锈钢的表层硬度,使表面粗糙度略有下降;表面机械研磨处理降低了316L不锈钢在0.5mol/L NaCl腐蚀介质中的耐蚀性能.因为316L不锈钢表面纳米晶组织容易钝化,形成的钝化膜不稳定,提高了溶解速度.     

Thermomechanical fatigue evaluation and life prediction of 316L(N) stainless steel

An attempt has been made to understand the thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) behaviour of a nitrogen-alloyed type 316L austenitic stainless steel under different temperature domains. Smooth, hollow specimens were subjected to in-phase (IP) and out-of-phase (OP) thermal–mechanical cycling in air under a mechanical strain control mode, at a strain rate of 6.4 × 10^?5 s^?1 and a strain amplitude of ±0.4%. For the sake of comparison, total strain controlled low cycle fatigue (LCF) tests were also performed at the peak temperatures of TMF cycling on similar specimens employing the same strain rate and strain amplitude. Life was found to depend on the thermal/mechanical phasing and temperature. Creep was found to contribute to life reduction in IP tests when the peak temperature of cycling was above 600 °C. A few TMF tests were performed in vacuum in order to assess environmental influence on life. Thermomechanical fatigue cycling led to the development of significant amounts of mean stresses and the stress response was generally higher compared to that of LCF tests at the peak cyclic temperatures. Also, the isothermal tests at the peak temperature of TMF cycling resulted in lower lives compared to those obtained under TMF. An attempt was made to predict the TMF life using the isothermal database and satisfactory predictions were achieved using the Ostergren’s frequency modified damage function (FMDF) approach.     

Fatigue of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel: The influence of porosity and surface roughness

The fatigue behaviour of additively manufactured (AM) 316L stainless steel is investigated with the main emphasis on internal porosity and surface roughness. A transition between two cases of failure are found: failure from defects in the surface region and failure from the internal defects. At low applied load level (and consequently a high number of cycles to failure), fatigue is initiating from defects in the surface region, while for high load levels, fatigue is initiating from internal defects. Porosities captured by X‐ray computed tomography (XCT) are compared with the defects initiating fatigue cracks, obtained from fractography. The fatigue data are synthesised using stress intensity factor (SIF) of the internal and surface defects on the fracture surface.     

Hydrogen-assisted cracking of sensitized 316L stainless steel

Thin tensile specimens of 316L-type austenitic stainless steel were tested either at room temperature after cathodic charging or whilst undergoing cathodic charging. Throughout this study we have compared solution-annealed samples with samples given the additional sensitization treatment. The results of the tensile tests show that the room temperature yield and ultimate strengths were not much affected by sensitization, whilst significant reduction in the ductility was observed depending on the heat treatment and the method of charging. The specimens tested while undergoing cathodic charging showed 21% reduction of elongation at-fracture for the annealed specimens and 49% reduction of elongation for the sensitized specimens. The fracture surfaces of the specimens tested while cathodically charged show considerable differences between the annealed and the sensitized specimens. The sensitized specimens were predominantly intergranular, while the fracture of annealed specimens showed massive regions of microvoid coalescence producing ductile rupture. The results were correlated with the presence or absence of the martensite phases determined by means of a ferrite detector and transmission electron microscopy studies.     

Characterization of sputter-deposited 316L stainless steel films

Sputter-deposited 316L stainless steel films deposited on various substrates were characterized using transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffractometry. The deposits were found to be fine-grained and the phases present in the films depended on the nature of the substrate. Films of various thicknesses deposited on microscope slides or oxidized stainless steel substrates contained a mixture of two phases: a body centre cubic (b c c) and a modified hexagonal -phase. The hexagonal phase appeared to be an ordered phase, as suggested by the a _O value of the structure, which is twice that for the -martensite found in many deformed stainless steels. These films were hard and brittle, as indicated by microhardness measurements. Films deposited on oxide-free austenitic stainless steel substrates, on the other hand, were mostly b c c and exhibited a dominant 2 00 texture. These films were softer and less brittle than those deposited on oxidized substrates. In situ high-temperature X-ray diffractometry revealed that the -phase transformed to b c c when the films were annealed at 773 K. On annealing at 873 K, the b c c phase transformed to face centre cubic, which remained stable on cooling to room temperature. These results agree with published data which suggest stability of the b c c phase up to 840 K. Some discrepancies from earlier published reports are discussed in the light of the present results.     

Ti-WC nanocrystalline coating formed by surface mechanical attrition treatment process on 316L stainless steel

Nanocrystalline coatings were performed on the surface of 316L stainless steel plates mechanically with a mixture of Ti and WC powders under vacuum conditions. The targets were replaced in the end of the high energy milling rig, while Ti-WC mixture was milled as usual. It is shown that the coatings are nanocrystalline in nature with narrow distribution of average size of nanocrystallites. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (with energy-dispersive spectrometer) revealed that the top layer of the coatings is uniform. Microhardness, roughness and primary corrosion tests (tafel tests) proved enhancement of coated samples with respect to raw materials. Transmission electron microscope image of deformed surface confirmed surrounding of nanoparticles by dislocation loops after plastic deformation.     

Laser surface modification of 316 L stainless steel with bioactive hydroxyapatite

Laser-engineered net shaping (LENS?), a commercial additive manufacturing process, was used to modify the surfaces of 316 L stainless steel with bioactive hydroxyapatite (HAP). The modified surfaces were characterized in terms of their microstructure, hardness and apatite forming ability. The results showed that with increase in laser energy input from 32 J/mm² to 59 J/mm² the thickness of the modified surface increased from 222 ± 12 μm to 355 ± 6 μm, while the average surface hardness decreased marginally from 403 ± 18 HV_0.3 to 372 ± 8 HV_0.3. Microstructural studies showed that the modified surface consisted of austenite dendrites with HAP and some reaction products primarily occurring in the inter-dendritic regions. Finally, the surface-modified 316 L samples immersed in simulated body fluids showed significantly higher apatite precipitation compared to unmodified 316 L samples.     

Joining MoSi2 to 316L stainless steel

The feasibility of joining MoSi2 to 316L stainless steel using active brazing techniques was investigated using two interlayer systems: cusil/Nb/cusil and cusil/Ni/cusil (where cusil is a commercially available Cu–Ag eutectic). Dense, uniform joints were obtained with the cusil/Nb/cusil interlayer system, because the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of niobium closely matched that of MoSi2 over a wide temperature range. Matching the CTEs of MoSi2 and the interlayer material shielded the low-toughness MoSi2 from residual stresses formed during cooling from the joint-processing temperature (830°C). The cusil/Ni/cusil interlayer, however, failed to produce adequate joints because of the large CTE difference between nickel and MoSi2.     

Strain-aging in highly worked 316L stainless steel

The room temperature burst pressure of 316L stainless steel burst discs exhibited increases of about 10% over 90 days. This increase may be associated with a strain-aging phenomenon requiring the presence of carbon since tensile property instability in worked austenitic stainless steels has been reported.^[1–5] The cold worked material directly beneath the score root on the burst disc could undergo the strain aging process, thus causing the observed increase in burst strength. Characterization and analysis were therefore undertaken to identify the controlling phenomena in the small heterogeneous volume that controls rupture of the burst disc. Optical metallography and magnetic measurements confirmed the presence of martensite. Nanoindentation hardness measurements were correlated with finite element simulation of the as-formed mechanical properties. A representative portion of the microstructure was then recreated through cold rolling, and subjected to real-time and accelerated thermal aging treatments and mechanical activation analysis. Saturation of strengthening was observed, and a low temperature martensite reversion anneal was found to prevent or reverse the aging process. The results are consistent with previous observations of strain aging, although in this instance the effects are observed over a 10,000-fold greater aging time. Aging mechanisms are discussed, incorporating the phenomenologies of activation enthalpy and aging kinetics. A model explaining the sensitivity of aging rate to extreme cold work-induced dislocation densities and cold work-induced vacancy content is proposed.     

Swelling of 316L austenitic stainless steel induced by plasma nitriding

Swelling of 316L austenitic stainless steel plasma nitrided at 400°C under floating potential has been investigated using electron back scattered diffraction and white-light interferometry. Swelling of individual grains strongly depends on their crystallographic orientation, similarly to the thickness of the nitrided layer. After 1 h of treatment, swelling is maximum for the 〈001〉 oriented grains and minimum for the 〈111〉 oriented grains. After 8 and 33 h of nitriding, the maximum of swelling is observed in the grains having their normal direction at about 15° from the 〈001〉 orientation. These results are discussed on the basis of plastic strain after comparison with calculated swellings of the 〈001〉 and 〈111〉 oriented grains, using the thickness of the nitrided layer deduced from the trapping–detrapping diffusion model and a rough estimation of the plastic strain. The satisfactory agreement between experimental and calculated swellings supports the idea that swelling results from the lattice expansion due to the incorporation of nitrogen plus an elastic strain and a plastic strain. For individual grains of the 316L matrix, nitriding leads to a tensile-like elongation of high magnitude (around 20%) and it might be the origin of the lattice rotations which were previously observed after nitriding.     

The influence of surface condition on the localized corrosion of 316L stainless steel orthopaedic implants

The localized corrosion of austenitic stainless steel 316L intended for use as orthopaedic implants is determined as a function of the surface condition and metallurgical state. From the examination of samples exposed to a ferric chloride solution, at both 22 and 37 °C, the independent contribution of crevice and pitting corrosion to localized corrosion is determined. Both forms of localized corrosion occur to a greater extent at the higher temperature. The results indicate that weight loss measurements may not be sufficient to determine the extent of crevice corrosion separately from the influence of pitting corrosion. More importantly, the surface conditions required for the best resistance to crevice or pitting corrosion differ. Electropolished surfaces provide the best resistance to crevice corrosion, while bead blasted surfaces provide the best resistance to pitting corrosion. The implication of this result in terms of the serviceability as orthopaedic implants is discussed. The current results indicate the cold-worked state exhibits improved resistance to pitting corrosion. However, the influence of the metallurgical state could not be separated from a possible compositional effect. © 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers     

316L不锈钢在海水中的阴极极化行为研究

为了探索316L不锈钢阴极保护有效控制电位,利用动电位极化曲线及恒电位极化法研究了316L不锈钢在天然海水和模拟闭塞液中的阴极极化行为,通过失重法研究了不同电位恒电位极化对316L不锈钢在模拟闭塞液中腐蚀控制的效果.研究表明:316L不锈钢在海水中适宜的阴极保护电位为-0.6～-0.9 V(vs.SCE),模拟闭塞液中...     

316L不锈钢选区激光熔化成型非水平悬垂面研究

为了提高选区激光熔化直接成型非水平悬垂面的能力,通过实验研究了影响悬垂面极限成型角度的工艺因素.实验使用316L不锈钢粉末,设计了不同倾斜角度的悬垂平面模型和悬垂曲面模型.结果表明:提高预置粉末密度可以提高悬垂面成型的极限角度;在25 μm的成型厚度下,激光扫描能量输入在0.15～0.2 J/mm时悬垂面成型精度最高,...