Design and validation of the high performance and low noise CQU‐DTU‐LN1 airfoils

This paper presents the design and validation of the high performance and low noise Chong Qing University and Technical University of Denmark LN1 (CQU‐DTU‐LN1) series of airfoils for wind turbine applications. The new design method uses target characteristics of wind turbine airfoils in the design objective, such as airfoil lift coefficient, drag coefficient and lift‐drag ratio, and minimizes trailing edge noise as a constraint. To express airfoil shape, an analytical expression is used. One of the main advantages of the present design method is that it produces a highly smooth airfoil shape that can avoid the problem of curvature discontinuity. An airfoil profile with discontinuous curvature can produce a discontinuous pressure gradient (i.e., local flow acceleration or deceleration), which enhances flow separation and thus decreases the airfoil performance. By combining the design method with the blade element momentum theory, the viscous‐inviscid xfoil code and an airfoil self‐noise prediction model, an optimization algorithm has been developed for designing the high performance and low noise CQU‐DTU‐LN1 series of airfoils with targets of maximum power coefficient and low noise emission. To validate the airfoil design, CQU‐DTU‐LN118 airfoil has been tested experimentally in the acoustic wind tunnel located at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), USA. To show the superiority of the CQU‐DTU‐LN1 airfoils, comparisons on aerodynamic performance and noise emission between the CQU‐DTU‐LN118 airfoil and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) 64618 airfoil, which is used in modern wind turbine blades, are carried out. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于多岛遗传算法的钝尾缘翼型多目标优化设计

针对大型水平轴风力机叶片运行工况复杂和结构强度要求高的问题,提出一种钝尾缘翼型的多目标优化方法。基于多岛遗传算法,采用Hicks-Henne型函数和钝尾缘函数对钝尾缘翼型进行参数化拟合,通过Matlab软件自编程序调用XFOIL气动分析软件进行流场分析,对选定翼型进行多工况多目标优化设计。整个优化过程集成在Isight平台中,可实现自动优化。采用上述方法,选用NACA63921翼型作为初始翼型进行多目标优化,利用Fluent转捩模型对得到的钝尾缘翼型进行CFD数值验证,并与几种常见的同厚度翼型进行对比。数值验证表明,优化得到的钝尾缘翼型在多个工况点下的升阻比均高于同厚度的FFA、DU系列等现有风力机翼型,在失速工况区流动分离延后,具有更好的气动稳定性。     

Integrated free‐form method for aerostructural optimization of wind turbine blades

A typical approach to optimize wind turbine blades separates the airfoil shape design from the blade planform design. This approach is sequential, where the airfoils along the blade span are preselected or optimized and then held constant during the blade planform optimization. In contrast, integrated blade design optimizes the airfoils and the blade planform concurrently and thereby has the potential to reduce cost of energy (COE) more than sequential design. Nevertheless, sequential design is commonly performed because of the ease of precomputation, or the ability to compute the airfoil analyses prior to the blade optimization. This research compares 2 integrated blade design approaches. The precomputational method combines precomputation with the ability to change the airfoil shapes in limited ways during the optimization. The free‐form method allows for a complete range of airfoil shapes, but without precomputation. The airfoils are analyzed with a panel method (XFOIL) and a Reynolds‐averaged Navier‐Stokes computational fluid dynamics method (RANS CFD). Optimizing the NREL 5‐MW reference turbine showed COE reductions of 2.0%, 4.2%, and 4.7% when using XFOIL and 2.7%, 6.0%, and 6.7% when using RANS CFD for the sequential, precomputational, and free‐form methods, respectively. The precomputational method captures most of the benefits of integrated design for minimal additional computational cost and complexity, but the free‐form method provides modest additional benefits if the extra effort is made in computational cost and development time.     

基于复合形法的垂直轴风力机翼型优化设计

针对低速航空翼型不完全适合垂直轴风力机的问题,采用复合形法对小型垂直轴风力机常用的NACA0015翼型进行了优化设计。在复合形法优化设计过程中,选取翼型的弯度和厚度作为设计变量,以翼型最大切向力系数Ctmax和失速攻角αs的加权和作为目标函数。将XFOIL程序与Viterna-Corrignan失速后模型相结合,计算出优化前后翼型气动性能参数。结果表明,与NACAOO15翼型相比,新翼型的气动性能有了较大提高,最大升力系数增大了33.5%,失速攻角提高了3°,最大切向力系数增大了43.5%。     

增加风力机叶片翼型后缘厚度对气动性能的影响

以FFA-W3翼型族为研究对象,对其系列翼型的后缘作了加厚处理。利用XFOIL软件对修改前后的翼型的气动性能进行了计算,利用Viterna-Corrigan失速后模型将气动性能数据的攻角扩展到了90°。对修改前后的翼型的气动性能数据的改变作了对比分析。利用原翼型和修改后翼型的气动性能数据对同一个风力机进行了气动性能计算,并对计算结果作了对比分析。结论认为,对翼型后缘进行适当加厚处理对气动性能影响不大,为满足工艺要求在叶片的生产中对翼型后缘作加厚处理是可行的。     

Airfoil optimisation for vertical‐axis wind turbines with variable pitch

To advance the design of a multimegawatt vertical‐axis wind turbine (VAWT), application‐specific airfoils need to be developed. In this research, airfoils are tailored for a VAWT with variable pitch. A genetic algorithm is used to optimise the airfoil shape considering a balance between the aerodynamic and structural performance of airfoils. At rotor scale, the aerodynamic objective aims to create the required optimal loading while minimising losses. The structural objective focusses on maximising the bending stiffness. Three airfoils from the Pareto front are selected and analysed using the actuator cylinder model and a prescribed‐wake vortex code. The optimal pitch schedule is determined, and the loadings and power performance are studied for different tip‐speed ratios and solidities. The comparison of the optimised airfoils with similar airfoils from the first generation shows a significant improvement in performance, and this proves the necessity to properly select the airfoil shape.     

A wind turbine blade profile analysis code based on the singularities method

The aerodynamic characteristics of wind turbines are closely related to the geometry of their blade profiles. The innovation and the technological development of wind turbine blade profiles can be centred on two tendencies. The first is to improve the shape of the existing airfoils and the second is to design new shapes of airfoils in order to get some more ambitious aerodynamic characteristics and enhanced performance.The aim of this paper is to develop an accurate airfoil analysis lower order code, based on the singularities method, for wind turbine applications. The 2D incompressible potential flow model has been used. In the implementation of the singularities method, source–vortex distributions over the airfoil contour are used to compute the flow characteristics. The accuracy and the validity of the results have been tested using experimental data obtained from Wind Turbine Airfoil Catalogue “Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, August 2001” and have shown considerable agreement.     

Experimental parameter study for passive vortex generators on a 30% thick airfoil

Passive vane–type vortex generators (VGs) are commonly used on wind turbine blades to mitigate the effects of flow separation. However, significant uncertainty surrounds VG design guidelines. Understanding the influence of VG parameters on airfoil performance requires a systematic approach targeting wind energy‐specific airfoils. Thus, the 30%‐thick DU97‐W‐300 airfoil was equipped with numerous VG designs, and its performance was evaluated in the Delft University Low Turbulence Wind Tunnel at a chord‐based Reynolds number of 2×10⁶. Oil‐flow visualizations confirmed the suppression of separation as a result of the vortex‐induced mixing. Further investigation of the oil streaks demonstrated a method to determine the vortex strength. The airfoil performance sensitivity to 41 different VG designs was explored by analysing model and wake pressures. The chordwise positioning, array configuration, and vane height were of prime importance. The sensitivity to vane length, inclination angle, vane shape, and array packing density proved secondary. The VGs were also able to delay stall with simulated airfoil surface roughness. The use of the VG mounting strip was detrimental to the airfoil's performance, highlighting the aerodynamic cost of the commonly used mounting technique. Time‐averaged pressure distributions and the lift standard deviation revealed that the presence of VGs increases load fluctuations in the stalling regime, compared with the uncontrolled case.     

Overall design optimization of dedicated outboard airfoils for horizontal axis wind turbine blades

Designing the primary airfoils for the outboard part of wind turbine blades is a complicated problem of balancing structural, aerodynamic, and acoustic requirements. This paper presents an optimization method for the overall performance of outboard wind turbine airfoils. Based on the complex flow characteristics of the rotor blades and the varying requirements along the span of a blade, the design principles of outboard airfoils were investigated. The requirements for improving the structural performance and reducing the aerodynamic noise were combined with the following aerodynamic design considerations: high efficiency, low extreme loads, stability, and a wide operating region. Thus, this paper proposes a new mathematical model for overall airfoil optimization using the airfoil performance evaluation indicators. Then, an integrated optimization design platform is established for outboard airfoils. Through 2 design cases, new airfoils with desirable aerodynamic characteristics and improved overall performance were obtained. Comparisons between the new airfoils and reference airfoils based on numerical predictions indicate that the proposed method with the newly established mathematical model can effectively balance the complex requirements of the airfoil and improve its overall performance. More notably, the design cases also indicate that the established optimization design method can be used to address special designs of outboard airfoils for different blade requirements.     

风力机新系列翼型气动性能研究

风力机翼型气动性能是风力机气动设计和性能分析的重要基础。采用粘性和无粘性结合的分析计算方法，对风力机新系列翼型进行了气动性能研究，用低雷诺数翼型分析和设计软件XFOIL分析了FFA－W3系列两种翼型在不同雷诺数和不同马赫数下的气动性能，并与实验数据进行了比较，取得了比较一致的结果。     

垂直轴风力机两种翼型气动性能比较研究

叶片是风力机最重要的组成部分,在不同的风能资源情况下,翼型的选择对垂直轴风力机气动特性有着重要的影响。文章分别以NACA0018翼型(对称翼型)和NACA4418翼型(非对称翼型)建立3叶片H型垂直轴风力机二维仿真模型。应用数值模拟的研究方法,从功率系数、单个叶片切向力系数等方面比较两种风力机模型在不同叶尖速比下的气动特性,并采用风洞实验数据验证了流场计算的准确性。CFD计算结果表明:在低叶尖速比下,NACA4418翼型风力机气动特性优于NACA0018翼型风力机,适用于低风速区域;在高叶尖速比下,NACA0018翼型风力机气动特性较好,适用于高风速地区。而且在高叶尖速比时,NACA0018翼型在上风区时,切向力系数平均值要高于NACA4418翼型,在下风区时,NACA418翼型切向力系数平均值高。该研究可为小型垂直轴风力机翼型的选择提供参考。     

Performance enhancement and load reduction of a 5 MW wind turbine blade

A wind turbine rotor blade, based on the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 5 MW reference turbine, is optimized for minimum cost of energy through simultaneous consideration of aerodynamics and bend-twist coupling. Eighty-three total design variables are considered, encompassing airfoil shapes, chord and twist distributions, and the degree of bend-twist coupling in the blade. A recently developed method requiring significantly less computation than finite element analysis is used for planning and predicting the bend-twist coupling behavior of the rotor. Airfoil performance is computed using XFOIL, while the wind turbine loads and performance are computed using the NREL FAST code. The objective function is annual cost of energy (COE), where reductions in flapwise bending loads and blade surface area are assumed to decrease rotor cost through reduced material requirements. The developed optimization process projects decreased blade loads while maintaining wind turbine performance.     

Global sensitivity analysis of the blade geometry variables on the wind turbine performance

The need for implementing efficient blade designs gains relevance as wind turbine developments require longer blades. The design of blade geometry, traditionally divided in 2D airfoils and spanwise distributions, is usually addressed as an optimization problem. A correct identification of the design variables is crucial to avoid unnecessary computational cost or insufficient exploration of the design space. This paper deals with the identification of the design variables that affect the wind turbine performance. First, the number of design variables for an accurate airfoil representation is resolved. A methodology, based on statistical hypothesis testing applied to the airfoil approximation errors, is presented to assess the accuracy of types of B‐splines. Second, the study is extended to chord and twist distributions besides airfoil geometry with the purpose of assessing the sensitive blade variables in the wind turbine performance. Global sensitivity analysis as multi‐variable linear regressions and variance‐based methods are used. Latin hypercube sampling is applied to generate efficient inputs. MATLAB‐based code is developed to obtain outputs: annual energy production, maximum blade tip deflection, overall sound power level and blade mass. As result of the study, a list of non‐affecting variables is deduced. These variables can be avoided in the optimization without loss of gain in the performance. The method is a powerful tool to analyse in a preliminary phase a design problem involving a high amount of variables and complex physical relations by means of combining different multi‐disciplinar calculation codes and performing statistical treatments. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Design of HAWT airfoils tailored for active flow control

This study describes a methodology for designing airfoils suitable to employ actuation in a wind energy environment. The novel airfoil sections are baptized wind energy actuated profiles (WAP). A genetic algorithm‐based multi‐objective airfoil optimizer is formulated by setting two cost functions: one cost function for wind energy performance and the other representing actuation suitability. The wind energy cost function compares the candidate airfoils' performance with ‘reference’ wind energy airfoils, considering a probabilistic approach to include the effects of turbulence and wind shear. The actuation suitability cost function is developed considering horizontal axis wind turbines active stall control, including two different control strategies designated by ‘enhanced’ and ‘decreased’ performance. Two different actuation types are considered, namely, boundary layer transpiration and dielectric barrier discharge plasma. Results show that using WAP airfoils provides much higher control efficiency than adding actuation on reference wind energy airfoils, without detrimental effects in non‐actuated operation. The WAP sections yield an actuator employment efficiency that is two to four times larger than those obtained with reference wind energy airfoils, at equivalent wind energy performance. Regarding geometry, and compared with typical wind energy airfoils, WAP sections for decreased performance display an upper surface concave aft region, while for increased performance, a convex upper surface aft region is obtained. The present study emphasizes that there is much to gain in designing airfoils from the beginning to include actuation effects, especially compared with employing actuation on already existing airfoils. The results demonstrate the potential of including actuation effects in the airfoil design process, thus enabling novel horizontal axis wind turbines control strategies. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prediction of the wind turbine performance by using BEM with airfoil data extracted from CFD

Blade element momentum (BEM) theory with airfoil data is a widely used technique for prediction of wind turbine aerodynamic performance, but the reliability of the airfoil data is an important factor for the prediction accuracy of aerodynamic loads and power. The airfoil characteristics used in BEM codes are mostly based on 2D wind tunnel measurements of airfoils with constant span. Due to 3D effects, a BEM code using airfoil data obtained directly from 2D wind tunnel measurements will not yield the correct loading and power. As a consequence, 2D airfoil characteristics have to be corrected before they can be used in a BEM code. In this article, we consider the MEXICO (Model EXperiments In Controlled cOnditions) rotor where airfoil data are extracted from CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) results. The azimuthally averaged velocity is used as the sectional velocity to define the angle of attack and the coefficient of lift and drag is determined by the forces on the blade. The extracted airfoil data are put into a BEM code without further corrections, and the calculated axial and tangential forces are compared to both computations using BEM with Shen's tip loss correction model and experimental data. The comparisons show that the recalculated forces by using airfoil data extracted from CFD have good agreements with the experiment.     

Improvement of airfoil design using smooth curvature technique

The newly developed generalized function of airfoil profiles of wind turbine based on Trajkovski conformal transform theory can be used to fit the existing airfoil profiles and create the new ones by adjusting the coefficients of the generalized function. In this approach, the geometrical scale factor a， which was taken as a constant 0.25, has a significant impact on the curvature smooth continuity which will affect the aerodynamic performances of the airfoil. In this paper, the functional integral theory of wind turbine airfoils is studied. Furthermore, the advantage and the importance of curvature issue for airfoil surface are discussed in detail. It is found that, when different existing airfoils were analyzed using the generalized function, the geometrical scale factor a reaches an unexpected lower value. Based on curvature smooth continuity theory, a new method is presented to correct the geometrical scale factor a. As a result, the curvature smooth continuity of the fitting profile has been greatly improved, compared with that of the original profile. As an application of this new method, the DU93-W-210 airfoil is improved with the corrected geometrical scale factor a, and optimized using genetic algorithm (GA) method by controlling the coefficients of the shape function, leading to a new airfoil. Comparatively, the aerodynamic performances of the new airfoil such as maximum lift coefficient, maximum lift-drag ratio, roughness insensitivity and so forth are better than the DU93-W-210 airfoil performances. The achieved results show that this novel method is feasible to optimize airfoils of wind turbine.     

Indicial lift response function: an empirical relation for finite‐thickness airfoils,and effects on aeroelastic simulations

The aeroelastic response of wind turbines is often simulated in the time domain by using indicial response techniques. Unsteady aerodynamics in attached flow are usually based on Jones's approximation of the flat plate indicial response, although the response for finite‐thickness airfoils differs from the flat plate one. The indicial lift response of finite‐thickness airfoils is simulated with a panel code, and an empirical relation is outlined connecting the airfoil indicial response to its geometric characteristics. The effects of different indicial approximations are evaluated on a 2D profile undergoing harmonic pitching motion in the attached flow region; the resulting lift forces are compared with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The relevance for aeroelastic simulations of a wind turbine is also evaluated, and the effects are quantified in terms of variations of equivalent fatigue loads, ultimate loads, and stability limits. The agreement with CFD computations of a 2D profile in harmonic motion is improved by the indicial function accounting for the finite‐thickness of the airfoil. Concerning the full wind turbine aeroelastic behavior, the differences between simulations on the basis of Jones's and finite‐thickness indicial response functions are rather small; Jones's flat‐plate approximation results in only slightly larger fatigue and ultimate loads, and lower stability limits. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于CFD技术与遗传算法的风力机大厚度翼型优化设计

针对目前风力机大厚度翼型设计参数空间有限、优化设计过程中气动力预测不准等问题,利用B样条函数表征通用翼型廓线,编制程序集成耦合翼型设计模块、任意翼型自适应网格模块、CFD流场计算模块、遗传算法优化模块,提出了基于CFD技术与遗传算法的风力机叶片大厚度翼型优化设计方法,并对比分析优化新翼型与DU97-W-300翼型的几何特性与气动性能。结果表明,优化方法设计的新翼型在主要攻角范围内具有较高的气动性能,在雷诺数为3.0×106的情况下,其升力系数、升阻比分别提高了13.555%、38.588%。该翼型优化设计方法为风力机大厚度通用翼型的设计与应用提供参考。     

风力机翼型的气动性能分析

风力机翼型气动性能分析是风力机气动设计和运行优化的重要基础。采用NUMECA软件对弯度为4%的风力机NACA4412翼型进行气动数值模拟,并与实验数据进行比较,取得比较一致的结果。在此基础上,对NACA2412、NACA4412、NACA6412不同弯度的翼型进行模拟分析,对三种翼型在不同攻角下的气动性能进行了比较,为风力机翼型弯度选择和翼型改型设计提供参考意见。     

风电叶片低粗糙敏感性厚翼型优化方法研究

基于叶片设计需求,将厚翼型设计点性能随前缘粗糙的敏感性参数化并引入到厚翼型设计中,改进其优化模型;结合翼型几何设计、性能分析以及最优化算法建立厚翼型低粗糙敏感性优化设计方法。通过35%相对厚度翼型案例设计,验证了该方法在实现光滑表面下高气动性能的同时,可有效降低粗糙表面下的性能损失。