Theoretical and experimental study of microstructures and weld pool geometry during GTAW of 304 stainless steel

In this work, temperature field and weld pool geometry during gas tungsten arc welding of 304 stainless steel are predicted by solving the governing equations of heat transfer and fluid flow under quasi-steady state conditions. The model is based on numerical solution of the equations of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in the weld pool. Weld pool geometry, weld thermal cycles, and various solidification parameters are then calculated by means of the model predictions. The model considers the effects of various process parameters including welding speed and heat input. It is found that the weld pool geometry, predicted by the proposed model, is in reasonable agreement with the corresponding experimentally measured ones. In addition, the solidification behavior of the weld pool can be predicted properly by the model predictions.     

脉冲激光焊接Hastelloy C-276合金的熔池流动传热特性分析

基于流体动力学方程和传热方程建立了三维瞬态模型,用于研究脉冲激光焊接0.5 mm厚Hastelloy薄板时熔池的流动行为及传热特性.应用Fluent软件,采用有限容积法(FVM)求解控制方程,用SIMPLE算法处理速度与压力的耦合.引入Pe来衡量焊接熔池中对流传热与传导传热的相对强弱,并以此分析焊接熔池的传热特性.结果表明:沿焊接方向,焊接熔池的流动速度随着离熔池中心距离的增加先增加后减小;在给定试验条件下,熔池流动速度在离熔池中心0.2 mm左右时出现最大值,且沿焊接方向前方稍大于后方,而后迅速减小为零;焊接熔池中对流的存在使得焊接熔池熔深较小而熔宽较大;最终的焊接形貌由对流传热与传导传热相互作用而成.对焊缝形貌的数值模拟结果与实验结果进行了比较,计算结果与实验结果吻合较好.此模型可为脉冲激光焊接Hastelloy C-276薄板时熔池流体流动行为的分析提供理论依据.     

Numerical modeling of heat transfer and fluid flow in hybrid laser–TIG welding of aluminum alloy AA6082

This paper describes a three-dimensional numerical model based on finite volume method to simulate heat transfer and fluid flow in laser–tungsten inert gas (TIG) hybrid welding process. To simplify the model and reduce the calculation time, keyhole dynamics are not considered; instead, a new modified volumetric heat source model is presented for the laser source to take into account the effect of the keyhole on the heat transfer into the workpiece. Due to the presence of arc current, an appropriate electromagnetic model based on the Maxwell equations are also solved to calculate electromagnetic forces in the weld pool. The results of computer simulation, including temperature, current density, electromagnetic, and melted material velocity field, are presented here. Furthermore, several dimensionless numbers are employed to recognize the importance of fluid flow driving forces in the weld pool. It is deduced that the fluid flow has an important effect on the weld pool shape. It is also founded that among the driving forces, Marangoni force is dominant fluid force in the weld pool. Besides, calculated results of hybrid welding process are compared with those of TIG and laser welding processes. The weld pool depth is relatively the same, but the width of the weld pool is highly larger in hybrid welding than lone laser welding. Eventually, the presented model is validated by comparison between calculated and experimental weld pool shape. It is founded that there is a good agreement as the capability of this model can be proved.     

外加高频磁场下电弧快速成形过程的电磁-流体耦合数值模拟

外加电磁作用是改善电弧快速成形零件组织和性能的有效方式之一。为了揭示高频磁场对熔池传热、对流和形态的影响机理,采用有限元电磁计算和有限体积流体分析耦合的方法,建立电磁场、熔池温度场和流体流动场分析的三维模型,分析工件和熔池中高频电磁力/热的分布特征,研究高频电磁力与表面张力、电弧力以及熔滴冲击共同作用下的熔池表面动态变形,对比分析有/无外加高频磁场情况下熔池温度分布和流体流动模式上的差异,并由此预测外加高频磁场对凝固组织和熔池形态的改变。结果表明,高频电磁力驱动熔池流体在垂直焊接方向的平面内形成单漩涡旋转对流,有利于熔断枝晶细化晶粒,熔池表面形状向远离线圈一侧倾斜,熔宽增大。金相和焊道横截面测试证实了上述模拟结果。     

表面活性元素硫对焊接熔池流动方式和深宽比的影响

建立了三维移动热源作用下焊接熔池的数学模型,模拟了表面活性元素S在不同质量分数作用下的熔池中的速度场和温度场。结果表明,S元素显著地影响了熔池中的流动方式,熔池深宽比随S质量分数的增加而迅速增大,当S质量分数超过80×10－6时,深宽比趋于一定值。S质量分数小于120×10－6时,熔池表面温度高于正表面张力温度系数发生的温度范围,正、负表面张力温度系数同时存在,温度梯度在最大表面张力处最大;当S质量分数超过120×10－6时,正表面张力温度系数控制着熔池中的流体流动,液体金属从熔池边缘流向熔池中心;随着S质量分数的增加,在熔池中出现数目、大小、方向和位置不同的涡流,当涡流的方向为由熔池边缘流向熔池中心时,涡流有效地把电弧能带到熔池底部,产生较大的熔深。     

表面活性元素对Marangoni流和熔池形状影响的数值分析

根据合金熔化与凝固过程液相区、固相区和糊状区共存的特点，建立了适合于ＧＴＡ焊接熔化与凝固过程的统一模型控制方程和辅助方程，并用控制容积积分的有限差分法对其进行了数值求解。能量方程中考虑了固／液相变潜热、表面合金元素的气化、表面对流和辐射热损失， 动量方程中考虑了浮力、电磁力和Ｍａｒａｎｇｏｎｉ力驱动流。重点讨论了Ｆｅ－１８Ｃｒ－９Ｎｉ合金中表面活性元素—硫 （Ｓ） 对Ｍａｒａｎｇｏｎｉ力诱导的熔池内涡流环路和熔池形状的影响。结果表明， Ｓ质量分数较小时， 每半个熔池内存在两个相反的涡流环路， 随着Ｓ质量分数的增加向外的流体环路逐渐减弱并消失， 面向内的流体环路逐渐增强与扩大， 造成熔池深度的增加。     

Numerical modeling to understand liquation cracking propensity during laser and laser hybrid welding (I)

Two-dimensional thermal elasto-plastic model was established by finite element method to investigate weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) liquation cracking behavior during laser and laser–gas metal arc (GMA) hybrid welding nickel-based superalloy. Transient temperature, cooling rate, and stress and strain history were used and combined with solidification theory to analyze the mechanism of liquation cracking in the HAZ. Weld cracking mechanical driving force is related to local stress–strain development at the period of solidification, and stress and strain components were correlated along the fusion boundary of weld pool. Strain rate and weld pool geometry were demonstrated during in the stage of solidification process, which provide valuable insight into the quantitative evaluation the tendency of solidification cracking and give well understanding why laser–GMA welding is beneficial for minimizing cracking susceptibility than laser welding.     

Use of a multivariate optimization algorithm to develop a self-consistent numerical heat transfer model for laser spot welding

Laser spot welding as a joining method offers many outstanding advantages, such as localized heating and melting, high weld-strength-to-weld-size ratio, and minimal heat affected zone. These provide the benefits of low heat distortion, repeatability, ability to automate and high throughout that are always in demand in industry. An accurate knowledge of the temperature-time history of the weld pool is a prerequisite for reliable prediction of the weld dimensions, final microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld joint. Measurement of the weld thermal cycle in the laser weld pool is nearly impossible due to high peak temperature, rapid melting and solidification, and the complex flow of liquid metal within a small weld pool. Mathematical modeling of the laser spot welding process has emerged as a useful tool for the prediction of the temperature-time history and weld pool dimensions. However, the reliability of the predicted values of temperature history and weld dimensions significantly depends on the accuracy of the input parameters provided in such models. For example, the value of the absorption coefficient is a significant input parameter for modeling the laser spot welding process. However, the same is rarely available with adequate reliability and is also difficult to assign from scientific principles alone. This work presents a novel mathematical framework where the values of a set of uncertain input parameters for mathematical modeling are identified inherently by integrating a finite element based heat transfer simulation using adaptive volumetric heat source and a multivariate optimization algorithm.     

等温容器放气过程中对流换热模型的研究

为了提高等温容器的性能,对等温容器放气过程中的对流换热模型进行了研究。用4个已知流量特性的电磁阀分别对4种等温容器进行了放气实验,采集放气过程中的压力曲线,并采用“停止法”得到放气过程中的温度曲线。基于等温容器放气过程的热力学模型,结合放气过程中的压力曲线和温度曲线,确定了放气过程中的对流换热系数,最后利用相似原理拟合得到了放气过程中声速阶段和亚声速阶段的对流换热经验关系式。声速阶段和亚声速阶段的经验关系式不仅体现了放气速度对对流换热的影响,还反映了铜丝填充密度,也就是孔隙率对换热的影响;声速阶段的经验关系式中还引入了空气压缩比,体现了空气在高压缩状态下压缩性对对流换热的影响。     

Effect of thermal radiation on convection heat transfer in cooling channel of photovoltaic thermal system

The effect of thermal radiation on convection heat transfer in flat-box type cooling channel of photovoltaic thermal system with tilt angle of 30 degree was studied by 3D numerical simulation under constant heat flux boundary condition. The temperature contours and velocity fields of fluid near the outlet were obtained. The variations of wall temperature and convection Nusselt number along flow direction for all the separate walls composing the cooling channel were compared and analyzed. The results show that due to thermal radiation, the deflection of the maximum velocity region to heated top wall, together with the asymmetry of temperature field is weakened. For natural convection, radiation promotes the formation of multi-vortices. For mixed convection, heat transfer on all the cooling channel walls is enhanced under the condition of lower heat flux while heat transfer on heated top wall is deteriorated when the heat flux is relative high. Also, pressure re-rising is promoted by thermal radiation.     

Estimation of convection heat transfer coefficient and surface emissivity of a nonreacting specimen in cone calorimeter using RPSO method

Data for the convection heat transfer coefficient and the surface emissivity of a matter are not easily available from the literature and are usually assumed to be constant values in most studies of pyrolysis. In this study the convection heat transfer coefficient and the surface emissivity of a specimen placed within a cone calorimeter under different external heat fluxes are estimated by using the statistical repulsive particle swarm optimization (RPSO) method. The transient surface temperature distribution of the specimen are measured from the cone calorimeter experiments for different external heat fluxes and these data are then used to determine the convection heat transfer coefficient and the surface emissivity of the specimen inversely. To check the accuracy of this method, we compared the measured temperature and the recalculated temperature of the specimen by using the estimated convection heat transfer coefficient and surface emissivity and we confirmed that they were fairly well matched with each other. We conclude that the proposed RPSO method of estimating the convection heat transfer coefficient and surface emissivity can be an alternative way of obtaining these data for various fire analyses.     

A new heat transfer model to predict cooling rates for rapid freezing fixation

A simple heat transfer model is presented to show that convection from the cryogen to the specimen is the limiting step in rapid freezing of small samples for electron microscopy when the Biot modulus, which measures the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer, (hd/k) < 1. In comparison to the commonly accepted conduction-limited model, the convection-limited model predicts that cooling rates are proportional to the surface area/volume ratio, independent of the sample thermal conductivity, and inversely proportional to the product of sample density and heat capacity. Literature values of experimentally measured cooling rates fit the convection limited model. Simple analogies to predict the heat transfer coefficient as a function of cryogen properties, specimen geometry and cryogen velocity are presented.     

Thermal modeling of friction stir welding of stainless steel 304L

This paper presents a numerical model, based on the displacement of one point of the material flow relative to a fixed reference point, in order to formulate the heat generation during friction stir process and thereby calculate the temperature difference between advancing and retreating sides. This model considers frictional heating dependent on both the temperature and the velocity of the tool, as well as heat generation due to plastic deformation dependent on temperature, and assumes that friction heat at high temperature was replaced by heat generation due to plastic deformation. The heat generated by plastic strain energy dissipation in thermomechanically affected zone is calculated by a new technique, and the convection heat transfer coefficient and the sticking state parameter are considered as a function of temperature. Finally, the thermal equations are solved using a nonlinear finite element code ABAQUS. The numerical results correctly showed the asymmetric nature of temperature distributed at different sides of the weld line which have good agreement with experimental data that are presented in the literature.     

焊接凝固裂纹驱动力的分析与模拟

分析了焊接构件中熔池变形及凝固收缩对熔池尾部应力应变场的影响,建立了不锈钢焊接凝固裂纹应力应变场的数值模拟模型,并对凝固裂纹的驱动力进行了计算.通过单元再生方案,消除了焊接构件中熔池变形对熔池尾部应力应变场的影响;通过增大材料的线膨胀系数,考虑了凝固收缩对熔池尾部应力应变场的影响,最终得到了各种条件下的焊接应力-应变场.     

R410A和R22在一种内螺纹强化管管内蒸发性能研究

为了研究单管管内蒸发性能,搭建了管内蒸发性能实验台,用隔膜泵代替了传统压缩机作为系统动力。研究了在冷却水量0.6m3/h,0.8m3/h和1.0m3/h下,9.52mm内螺纹管内10℃蒸发的制冷剂侧换热性能。结果表明,R22和R41OA的总换热系数,换热系数hr和压降均随着制冷剂流量的增加而增加,在小质量流量下,R410A比R22有更好的换热性能,看起来可以替代R22。但当制冷剂流速增大到300～400kg/(s.m2)时,R22的换热系数增加显著,而R410A趋于平缓,所以在大质量流量下,R410A没有R22换热性能好,替代工作仍待研究。     

单元组装式太阳能储热器的Fluent蓄热性能研究

研制一种单元组装式太阳能储热器,采用熔盐作为蓄热材料,利用Fluent中的凝固/融化模型对相变材料在储热器的蓄热、相变过程进行数值模拟研究,得到了相变材料固-液相变过程不同时刻的温度场分布,通过与实验数据对比验证了模拟方法的可行性;分析了传热介质入口温度以及流速对储热器储能过程的影响,计算了一定工况下,储能过程温度随时间的变化情况,得到之间的关系表达式以及对流传热系数与Re的关系,对太阳能储热器的设计、模块化生产及应用具有重要现实意义。     

管壁厚度对在线焊接管道承压能力的影响

运用有限元法对不同壁厚的管道进行在线焊接时的温度场进行了数值模拟，内部介质流动对焊接温度场的影响通过确定介质与管壁的换热系数来考虑，并根据温度计算结果，获得管道的剩余强度因子，进而获得管道的极限压力。研究表明，焊缝上点的峰值温度随着壁厚的增大而略有升高，而主管内壁的峰值温度随着壁厚的增大而下降。当壁厚增大到一定程度时，在线焊接管道的剩余强度因子增大速度减缓。     

环面接触复层多孔轴承热流体动压润滑性能及生/传热机制分析

为分析热效应对多孔环面接触复层含油轴承流体润滑性能的影响,建立环面接触复层含油轴承系统的热流体动压润滑模型,数值分析轴承系统的温度场及速度场分布,讨论考虑热效应时的复层含油轴承流体润滑问题及其生热、传热机制。结果表明：从轴承底面到摩擦对偶面,温度呈先升高后降低趋势,径向上温度随着半径增加而升高,系统的最高温度位于油膜区外环面上的最小膜厚处;轴承系统中的热量主要由油膜相对剪切发生,周向相对运动速度是系统生热的主要影响因素,温度与周向速度的分布形态相似,油膜产生的热量通过对流换热逐渐向多孔轴承中传导,轴承表层厚度或渗透率降低,对流换热效果变差,轴承系统中温度升高,热效应对润滑性能的影响变大;考虑热效应后,油膜润滑性能变差,但数值分析精度提高,数值结果更接近试验实测值。     

TIG焊接熔透熔池形状和表面变形的数值模拟

利用建立的三维TIG焊接熔池瞬时行为数值分析模型,对移动热源作用下不锈钢薄板全熔透时熔池动态行为进行了数值分析。结果表明,同时采用电弧热流和电弧压力的双椭圆分布模式,相对于高斯分布模式,计算出的熔池形状和表面变形与试验结果吻合得更好。给出运动电弧作用下熔池表面变形的动态演变,分析了与固定电弧焊接时的异同,为运动电弧作用下TIG焊接的数值模拟与智能控制提供了理论依据和试验数据。     

R290水冷式冷凝器的设计与实验

针对R290的性能特点,设计了R290/CO2复叠式制冷循环的R290水冷式冷凝器;并在R290/CO2复叠式制冷循环实验台上进行实验,得到R290出口温度,冷却水出口温度及冷却水进出口温度差随冷却水流量和冷却水进口温度的变化关系,通过计算得到了R290和冷却水的对流换热系数随冷却水流量与冷却水进口温度的变化关系,得出了R290的对流换热系数对R290冷凝器换热性能影响较大,应加强R290侧的换热.