Characterising wood fibre mats as reinforcements for liquid composite moulding processes

Liquid composite moulding (LCM) processes are commonly used techniques for the manufacture of advanced composite structures. This study explores the potential of wood fibres as reinforcement for LCM preforms, considering discontinuous fibre mats produced using four different methods. Modified paper manufacturing techniques were employed to produce two types of wet formed mats, the other two being manufactured using dry methods. The dry compaction response of these mats has been investigated, required compression loads being measured up to a fibre volume fraction of 0.4. A complex non-elastic compression response was observed which has significant influence on forces generated within moulds. Saturated compaction tests were also carried out, the samples infiltrated with two different test fluids. A significant reduction in compaction load was observed due to wood softening when using a water based fluid. On the other hand, a non-water-based solution had little less influence on the compaction of the wood fibre mats. In addition, permeability of all four types of mats was measured as a function of fibre volume fraction. Reinforcement permeability and compaction response data are required to simulate LCM processes.     

Permeability of natural fiber reinforcement for liquid composite molding processes

We investigate the influence of liquid type on the saturated permeability of natural fabrics in liquid composite molding processes. The permeability of flax woven fabric was characterized with two different liquids which have different viscosity, wettability, and sorption characteristics with flax fiber. From the experimental data, it was observed that the saturated permeability values were different for the liquid type. The fiber swell during the mold filling process and the corresponding change of fabric microstructure were assumed to be the main reason for this dependency of saturated permeability on the liquid type. The fiber swell due to the liquid sorption was characterized as a function of time, and the corresponding change of fiber diameter was investigated. The effective fiber volume fraction of wet natural fabric was defined in terms of fiber swelling ratio. The predictions by the classical Kozeny–Carman model and by the modified Kozeny–Carman model with two model constants were compared with the experimental data. It was shown that the modified Kozeny–Carman equation considering fiber swell could predict very well the saturated permeability of natural fabrics regardless of liquid type.     

Simulation of void formation in liquid composite molding processes

Air entrapment within and between fiber tows during preform permeation in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes leads to undesirable quality in the resulting composite material with defects such as discontinuous material properties, failure zones, and visual flaws. Essential to designing processing conditions for void-free filling is the development of an accurate prediction of local air entrapment locations as the resin permeates the preform. To this end, the study presents a numerical simulation of the infiltrating dual-scale resin flow through the actual architecture of plain weave fibrous preforms accounting for the capillary effects within the fiber bundles. The numerical simulations consider two-dimensional cross sections and full three-dimensional representations of the preform to investigate the relative size and location of entrapped voids for a wide range of flow, preform geometry, and resin material properties. Based on the studies, a generalized paradigm is presented for predicting the void content as a function of the Capillary and Reynolds numbers governing the materials and processing. Optimum conditions for minimizing air entrapment during processing are also presented and discussed.     

基于化学流变学的复合材料液态模塑成型过程的灵敏度分析

为了探讨复合材料液态模塑成型（LCM）过程中充填时间和树脂流动前锋形状对材料参数及工艺参数的敏感程度,考虑树脂非稳态浸润过程中的边缘效应以及固化反应现象,引入灵敏度分析方法,推导了模腔内流体压力灵敏度和流体速度灵敏度等关键物理量参数之间所满足的数学关系,构建了充填时间灵敏度方程以及表征材料浸润缺陷形成可能性的树脂流动前锋形状函数及其灵敏度方程,并设计了各物理量的耦合求解方法及灵敏度分析的技术路线。在此基础上,自主开发了数值模拟软件,数值分析了关键材料和工艺参数对树脂流场发展的影响规律和程度。模拟结果表明,在恒压注射边界条件下,提高流体注射温度是提高生产效率最有效的方法,减少边缘区域渗透率则是最能改善树脂流动前锋形状以及充填浸润效果的途径。     

Simultaneous gate and vent location optimization in liquid composite molding processes

In liquid composite molding processes the resin is injected into the mold cavity, which contains pre-placed reinforcement fabrics, through openings known as gates while the displaced air leaves the mold through openings called as vents. Gate and vent locations determine process outputs such as fill time, pressure requirements and whether the fabrics will be saturated entirely, a requirement for the success of the mold filling operation. Disturbances such as racetracking, in which the resin flows faster along the edges of the mold, further complicate the gate and vent selection process. In this study, a cascaded optimization algorithm, which is created by integration of branch and bound search and map-based exhaustive search, is proposed for simultaneous gate and vent location optimization in the presence of racetracking. Three case studies are presented to demonstrate usefulness of this methodology and the results are validated in a Virtual Manufacturing Environment.     

Influence of meshing on the numerical simulation of liquid composite molding processes

Computer simulation has been an efficient and cost-effective tool for the Liquid Composite Molding (LCM) processes, including the RTM, VARTM, and resin infusion, compared to trial-and-error. The Control Volume Finite Element Method (CVFEM) has been the predominant method for simulation. Two critical issues of CVFEM are simulation accuracy and computational efficiency, and they are strongly dependent on meshing. In this paper, the influence of meshing on the simulation accuracy is investigated. Both uniform and non-uniform meshes are studied. The results show that for a radial flow, simulation accuracy can be significantly improved by using non-uniform meshes. A case study is conducted and it is shown that for a point injection, the computation time for mold filling simulation can be reduced by more than 99% while maintaining the same simulation accuracy.     

An efficient solver of the saturation equation in liquid composite molding processes

A major issue in Liquid Composite Molding Process (LCM) concerns the reduction of voids formed during the resin filling process. Reducing the void content increases the quality of the composite and improves its mechanical properties. Most of modeling efforts on process simulation of mold filling has been focused on the single phase Darcy’s law, with resin as the only phase, ignoring the formation and transport of voids. The resin flow in a partially saturated region can be characterized as two phase flow through a porous medium. The mathematical formulation of saturation in LCM takes into account the interaction between resin and air as it occurs in a two phase flow. This model leads to the introduction of relative permeabilities as a function of saturation. The modified saturation equation is obtained as a result, which is a non-linear advection-diffusion equation with viscous and capillary phenomena. In this work, a flux limiter technique has been used to solve a modified saturation equation for the LCM process. The implemented algorithm allows a numerical optimization of the injected flow rate which minimizes the micro/macroscopic void formation during mold filling. Some preliminary numerical results are presented here in order to validate the proposed mathematical model and the numerical scheme. This formulation opens up new opportunities to improve LCM flow simulations and optimize injection molds.     

定型剂对经编织物液态成型复合材料工艺性及其力学性能的影响

研究了双马来酰亚胺树脂定型剂含量对0°/90°双轴向经编织物(Non-crimp fabric,NCF)定型效果、液态成型工艺性、复合材料力学性能的影响。采用厚度回弹、C型回弹的方法表征定型效果;采用厚度压缩与偏轴拉伸实验表征带定型剂织物成型工艺性;并采用弯曲实验与层间剪切实验表征复合材料力学性能。实验结果表明定型剂的添加显著提高了NCF织物的预定型效果;经定型剂处理后NCF织物的面内剪切模量有了较大提高,抗剪切变形能力增强;添加定型剂对0°/90°双轴向NCF织物复合材料的力学性能影响不大,但在改善其工艺性的同时并不会降低其复合材料的力学性能。     

Model-assisted feedback control for liquid composite molding

A model-assisted feedback control algorithm, a type of generic model control, is implemented to control cure in resin transfer molding. This control algorithm calculates an apparent temperature of reaction based on the cure data input form a sensor, and this temperature is used to compare the actual rate of reaction to the desired rate and to calculate the mold set-point temperature. The model input into the control algorithm is an empirical cure model of a pre-ceramic polymer with an Arrhenius temperature dependence from 55 to 95 °C. In this work, the effect of varying control parameters is evaluated through cure simulations and experiments. Also, the effect of noise on the controller robustness is evaluated through simulation and experiment. Control parameters are evaluated for 55 and 95 °C.     

三维机织复合材料结构表征与实体造型

利用经纱脉络描述法解决了任意三维机织复合材料的结构表征问题;提出了单胞分解法与亚胞向量概念,实现了三维结构的二维化、数字化,根据数字表征结果和经典截面假设构造了初始断裂模型;使用一种迭代算法对初始断裂模型进行优化,使纱线束逐步逼近真实形态,进而实现三维实体造型,在此基础上进行网格剖分。研究结果表明,迭代算法能够使纱线形态趋于自然,使造型结果接近实际。数值分析结果表明,迭代算法中的经纬纱退让系数介于0.6～0.7之间时,迭代收敛速度最快。     

In-plane permeability characterization of a unidirectional flax/paper reinforcement for liquid composite molding processes

Principal in-plane permeabilities of a unidirectional flax/paper reinforcement are characterized in terms of reinforcement material and manufacturing parameters at a constant fiber volume fraction (V_f). ANOVA result shows that surface density of the unidirectional flax layer is the most important parameter on the mean and variance of the K₁ permeability. On the other hand all four studied parameters are concluded to affect the K₂ permeability. The K₁ permeability is found close to that of a twill weave flax fiber fabric reported in the literature and only one order of magnitude lower than a plain weave glass fiber fabric. Impregnation of the reinforcement with epoxy resin shows that a large area of the molded plaques was dominated by capillary forces during resin injection. This means capillary number and subsequently the resin injection velocity should be optimized for reducing void content in the final composite.     

三维机织复合材料多尺度黏弹性分析

建立了一种三维机织复合材料多尺度的黏弹性分析模型。首先构造了微观尺度纱线束胞元和细观尺度复合材料周期结构胞元两级有限元模型, 由微观尺度胞元分析得到纱线束的弹性常数, 再代入细观尺度胞元计算出复合材料的平均弹性常数。两级胞元模型均施加周期边界条件, 保证了胞元边界上位移和应力满足周期性和连续性。随后分别建立了树脂基体和浸润树脂纱线束的蠕变模型, 用实验标定树脂的蠕变参数, 代入微观尺度胞元进行蠕变计算来修正纱线束蠕变模型的参数。最后将树脂和纱线束的蠕变本构关系应用于细观尺度胞元, 得到材料宏观平均的应力-应变响应, 模拟了三维机织复合材料的蠕变实验曲线。本文模型对于该种复合材料弹性常数和蠕变性能的预测, 均与实验吻合。      

液体模塑成型工艺二维径向非饱和流动数值模拟

通过引入沉浸函数建立了双尺度多孔介质非饱和流动模型,并采用有限元/控制体积法实现了恒压及恒流注射条件下液体模塑成型（LCM）工艺二维径向非饱和流动的数值模拟,得到了不同注射条件下纤维织物内的压力场分布及半饱和区域长度随时间的变化规律,并将双尺度非饱和理论结果与单尺度饱和理论结果进行对比。结果表明：非饱和流动过程中,半饱和区域内的压力和压力梯度明显下降;半饱和区域长度随时间逐渐增加随后保持稳定,当流动前沿到达出口后半饱和区域长度开始逐渐减小;当两个主方向渗透率不同时,沿主方向半饱和区域长度也不同,渗透率越大该方向的半饱和区域长度也越大,纤维织物完全浸润时间取决于较小的渗透率。研究结果对合理预测树脂填充过程中压力分布及纤维预制件的浸润具有指导意义。     

航空发动机复合材料叶片用3D机织预制体研究进展

三维机织复合材料（3DWCs）因其高比强度、低密度、低热膨胀系数和良好的成型性等优点受到越来越多的青睐,已经成功运用到飞机和汽车工程等领域。随着航空发动机研发力度的加大,3DWCs也在飞机发动机零部件上有所应用。综述了航空发动机复合材料叶片用三维机织预制体（3DWPs）的研究进展及现状;对比了异形高厚度3DWPs的几种织造方法;基于试验测试和仿真模拟,介绍了国内外3DWPs变形性能的研究进展;分析了3DWPs结构对其复合材料性能的影响;最后,展望了3DWPs的发展方向,为航空发动机复合材料叶片的发展提供了参考依据。     

复合材料液体模塑成型工艺中预成型体渗透率张量的数值预测

结合均匀化理论和计算流体动力学技术, 实现了对复合材料液体模塑工艺中预成型体渗透率张量的预测。首先, 采用均匀化理论分析了流体在多孔介质内的流动问题, 推导出广义达西定律, 证明以施加周期性边界条件的单胞为研究对象, 可以预测预成型体的渗透率张量, 并以单向纤维织物为例, 对该方法进行了验证。对于复杂结构的预成型体, 渗透率的预测分为两步, 首先分别确定预成型体中流道和纤维束的渗透率, 然后计算其整体宏观渗透率。对于二维平面织物, 该方法与其他预测方法及实验的结果吻合较好。本文还考察了单胞的微观结构对渗透率的影响, 微观结构相似的预成型体如果孔隙率相同, 但束间流道的结构不同, 其整体宏观渗透率也存在很大差别。      

三维正交机织复合材料的单胞模型及应用

根据三维正交机织复合材料的结构特点,在假设纤维束横截面为矩形的基础上建立一种单胞模型,该模型由3组互相正交的纤维与基体组成。首先利用这一模型,推导出纤维体积分数与纤维粗度、机织密度等织物参数的关系式,通过测量单胞单元的单层厚度得到纤维体积分数,计算值和实验值较为吻合。然后在假定纤维和基体均为线弹性材料的基础上,利用材料力学方法推导出了3 个正交方向的杨氏模量表达式,该表达式简单明了,给出了三维正交机织复合材料杨氏模量与纤维和基体的杨氏模量以及纤维体积分数间的关系,算例的计算结果与实验值有良好的一致性,这说明所建立的单胞模型具有合理性。     

In situ measurement and monitoring of whole-field permeability profile of fiber preform for liquid composite molding processes

For liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, such as resin transfer molding (RTM), the quality of final parts is heavily dependent on the uniformity of the fiber preform. However, the conventional permeability measurement method, which uses liquid (oil or resin) as its working fluid, only measures the average preform permeability in an off-line mode. This method cannot be used to create an in situ permeability profile because of fiber pollution. Further, the conventional method cannot be used to reveal preform's local permeability variations. This paper introduces a new permeability characterization method that uses gas flow to detect and measure preform permeability variations in a closed mold assembly before resin injection. This method is based upon two research findings: (1) resin permeability is highly correlated with air permeability for the same fiber preform with well-controlled gas flow, and (2) the whole-field air permeability profile of a preform can be obtained through measuring the pressure field of gas flow.In this study, first the validity of the gas-assisted, in situ permeability measurement technique was established. Then the technique was demonstrated as effective by qualitatively detecting non-uniformities and permeability variations in fiber performs. Finally, a two-dimensional flow model, based on the finite difference scheme, was developed to quantitatively estimate the whole-field preform permeability profile using predetermined pressure distribution. The efficacy of the new method was illustrated through experimental results.     

Isothermal flow simulation of liquid composite molding

This paper proposes a finite element/nodal volume procedure for the isothermal flow simulation of liquid composite molding processes. The formulation and the numerical implementation of the procedure are described. A scheme is introduced to prevent the procedure from possible locking in the flow calculation. The capability and the numerical accuracy of the procedure are investigated through a number of numerical examples.     

Branch and bound search to optimize injection gate locations in liquid composite molding processes

In liquid composite molding (LCM) processes the resin is injected into a mold cavity containing pre-placed reinforcement fabrics through openings known as gates, and the air leaves the mold through openings called as vents. The gate and vent locations play a crucial role as to whether the resin covers all empty spaces between the fibers in the mold, which dictates the quality and the properties of the final product. Optimization methods are used to find the gate and vent locations that will create a favorable flow that will prevent dry spots. In this paper, branch and bound search is adapted to mold filling in LCM processes and is used to find the optimal injection gate location that fulfill two different objectives. First, to find the gate locations that will yield the shortest fill time. Second, to find the auxiliary gate locations that will counteract a disturbance during filling and minimize the size of the dry spot. In each case, three geometries have been studied. The results are compared with exhaustive search and genetic algorithms results to illustrate the efficiency and accuracy of branch and bound search method.     

Effect of weaving processes on compressive behavior of 3D woven composites

This work is an attempt to examine the effect of weaving process on the compressive failure behavior of 3D carbon/epoxy composites. Three weaving processes were designed and studied: unidirectional, bi-directional, and symmetric weaving. They result in 3D fabrics with the same three-axis, orthogonal yarn structure in the interior but with different interlacing patterns on surface. To manifest the influence of the transverse yarns, a unidirectional composite with the same axial fiber content and a monolithic epoxy material are also tested. Resin transfer molding was employed to impregnate and consolidate the fabrics. Since the specimens are relatively thick, an end-supported, end-loaded fixture was used to apply the compressive load. The strength was measured and the induced damage was examined. The symmetric weaving results in composites with the least fiber undulation in axial yarns. Two prevailing failure modes of different dimensional scales were observed in the materials. One is the microscopic fracture band, consisting of fiber kink-bands in axial yarns and matrix cracks in the transverse yarns. The other is the miniscopic fracture band, consisting of the fracture of yarns in all three directions. The microscopic bands are intensive but less detrimental, while the miniscopic fracture band is more crucial and is responsible for the major drop in load. The onset and growth of these modes are discussed, and how these modes relate to the interlacing loops on surface is also examined.