Algorithms to estimate the rose of directions of a spatial fibre system

The directional measure (which is up to normalization the rose of directions) is used to quantify anisotropy of stationary fibre processes in three-dimensional space. There exist a large number of approaches to estimate this measure from the rose of intersections (which is the mean number of intersections of fibres with lower dimensional test sets). Three recently suggested nonparametric algorithms to solve this problem are reviewed and compared. They were obtained from solutions of a least squares problem, a more general convex optimization problem and a linear program, respectively. Application to two different carbon fibre architectures and to simulated data allow an empirical comparison of these approaches. In addition, estimators for the associated zonoid (or Steiner compact) are suggested. This set turns out to be an intuitive tool for visualization.     

On the rose of directions measurements on the discrete grid of an automatic image analyser

Estimation of the rose of directions is a simple way to analyse the anisotropy of structures made of lines, objects or interconnected phases. However, when used on an automatic image analyser with a square frame, the rose of directions obtained from circles is not uniform. This problem is analysed here. It originates in the interpretation of the discrete rose of directions, which is not a histogram, but an averaging with non-constant angular mask and weight function. New coefficients are proposed to get a pseudo-rose of directions which is uniform for isotropic structures such as assemblies of circles.     

On the orientational analysis of planar fibre systems from digital images

The orientational characteristics of fibres in digital images are studied. The fibres are modelled by a planar Boolean model whose typical grain is a thick (coloured) fibre. The aim is to make stereological inference on the rose of directions of the unobservable central fibres from observations made on a digital image of the thick fibres. For central fibres, the relation between the rose of directions and the point intensity, observed on a sampling line, is known. We derive, under regularity conditions, the relation between the unobservable point intensity and the scaled variogram observed on the line in a binary and a greyscale image. Using such a relation, it is possible to draw inference about the rose of directions from the scaled variogram, which is easy and quick to determine in a digital image.     

Directional analysis of planar fibre networks: Application to cardboard microstructure

This paper discusses the problem of determining suitable roses of intersections for systems of planar thick fibres which cross and overlap. A planar Boolean model with long rectangular (or similar) grains is suggested as an appropriate mathematical model. It leads to a statistical estimator for the rose of intersections of the system of fibre spines. The method is used to analyse the microstructure of the outer layer of two samples of cardboard.     

Enhanced measurement capability of a digital particle holographic system for flow field measurements

To enhance the capability of digital particle holography as a tool for flow field measurements, several effective methods are developed. The correlation coefficient method was used to accurately locate the focal plane of particles and the optimal factors of this method were discussed. To remove noises and improve the quality of holograms and reconstructed images, the Wiener filter was adopted. The two-threshold and image segmentation methods were used to obtain high quality binary images from which we can get good results of particle extraction. Based on the above methods, an in-line digital particle holographic system was applied to channel flow field and the axial velocities of channel flow were measured. The feasibility of these methods is verified by quantitative measurement results which are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions.     

Estimating the length of a bounded curve in three dimensions using total vertical projections

A new method is proposed to estimate the total length of a bounded, isolated linear feature in three dimensions from ‘total vertical projections’, obtained by rotating the curve about a fixed axis (arbitrarily called ‘vertical’) and projecting it onto a fixed vertical plane. No sections are required. Properly stained and embedded neuron dendrites, mycelial trees, fluorescent cytoskeletal filaments within a cell, etc., are candidate specimens for the method, especially in combination with the new devices for non-invasive three-dimensional microscopy. It is necessary that the specimen curve is rigid (i.e. of constant shape), that its length density is not too high (so that overlapping effects are not important) and that the embedding medium is fairly transparent. Given these requirements, the method can be very accurate and convenient to use, as is exemplified here.     

Comments on the shortcomings of predicting the precision of Cavalieri volume estimates based upon assumed measurement functions

It is well known that the estimation of an object's volume by means of serial cross-sections, the so-called Cavalieri method, yields an unbiased estimate. But by itself it provides no means by which to estimate how precise this estimate is unless the shape of the volume is fully known beforehand. This knowledge can only be partially determined from the serial section information that is collected. Methods have been developed that claim to surmount this difficulty by using the serial section data to create a mathematical model of the volume's shape properties. The model then is used to estimate (predict) the precision of the volume estimate (its CE) from the single set of data available. Unfortunately, the theory underlying the model is flawed and so the model itself amounts to no more than an unsubstantiated guess about the shape of the volume. Therefore, the precision of the volume estimates that one obtains from the method is only as good as the model and this cannot be ascertained from the single set of acquired data. In this letter I explain the inadequacies of the modelling method. I suggest that it be used only with caution, if at all. Instead I suggest two alternative ways to predict the CE, one that is based upon a rule-of-thumb approach to the object's shape, and another that is based upon spectral analysis of the measurement function and that is easy to implement with available computer software.     

Nonray‐tracing determination of the 3D refractive index profile of polymeric fibres using single‐frame computed tomography and digital holographic interferometric technique

In this paper, we present a nonray‐tracing technique for evaluating the three dimensional distribution of the refractive index values inside polymeric fibres. This technique, named ‘single‐frame computed‐tomography (SFCT)’, is applied to digital holography. A comparative study between the calculated optical phase values using ordinary tomography and SFCT is carried out, and a negligible deviation is detected. The proposed technique is used to determine the three‐dimensional refractive index profile of isotactic Polypropylene fibres, IPP. The variation of the optical properties is measured before, during and after the formation of the necking phenomenon. In addition, SFCT technique is applied to the online determination of the change of the optical properties of IPP fibres. Holograms are given for illustration.     

Prediction of the variance of stereological volume estimates from systematic sections using computer-intensive methods

The Cavalieri method is an unbiased estimator of the total volume of a body from its transectional areas on systematic sections. The coefficient of error (CE) of the Cavalieri estimator was predicted by a computer‐intensive method. The method is based on polynomial regression of area values on section number and simulation of systematic sectioning. The measurement function is modelled as a quadratic polynomial, with an error term superimposed. The relative influence of the trend and the error component is estimated by techniques of analysis of variance. This predictor was compared with two established short‐cut estimators of the CE based on transitive theory. First, all predictors were applied to data sets from six deterministic models with analytically known CE. For these models, the CE was best predicted by the older short‐cut estimator and by the computer‐intensive approach, if the measurement function had finite jumps. The best prediction was provided by the newer short‐cut estimator when the measurement function was continuous. The predictors were also applied to published empirical datasets. The first data set consisted of 10 series of areas of systematically sectioned rat hearts with 10–13 items, the second data set consisted of 13 series of systematically sampled transectional areas of various biological structures with 38–90 items. On the whole, similar mean values for the predicted CE were obtained with the older short‐cut estimator and the computer‐intensive method. These ranged in the same order of magnitude as resampling estimates of the CE from the empirical data sets, which were used as a cross‐check. The mean values according to the newer short‐cut CE estimator ranged distinctly lower than the resampling estimates. However, for individual data sets, it happened that the closest prediction as compared to the cross‐check value could be provided by any of the three methods. This finding is discussed in terms of the statistical variability of the resampling estimate itself.     

A practical approach to the stereology of anisotropic structures

Inversion formulae for the rose of directions of fibre (surface) processes are evaluated by means of a parametric model of the rose of intersections. The problems of statistical tests of isotropy, degree of anisotropy and stereological formulae are solved. A short-cut sampling procedure for the three-dimensional case is proposed and applied in a metallographic situation.     

数字式传感器在智能温度变送器设计中的应用

本文介绍了ＤＳ１６２０新型数字式温度传感器的工作原理及特点,提出了数字式热电偶冷端温度补偿的方法并将其用于智能温度变送器的设计中,解决了传统热电偶冷端（参比端）温度补偿器的型号匹配问题,克服了补偿电桥不能完全补偿的缺点,提高了测量精度,降低了变送器的成本。     

Orientational analysis of planar fibre systems observed as a Poisson shot-noise process

We consider two‐dimensional fibrous materials observed as a digital greyscale image. The problem addressed is to estimate the orientation distribution of unobservable thin fibres from a greyscale image modelled by a planar Poisson shot‐noise process. The classical stereological approach is not straightforward, because the point intensities of thin fibres along sampling lines may not be observable. For such cases, Kärkkäinen et al. (2001) suggested the use of scaled variograms determined from grey values along sampling lines in several directions. Their method is based on the assumption that the proportion between the scaled variograms and point intensities in all directions of sampling lines is constant. This assumption is proved to be valid asymptotically for Boolean models and dead leaves models, under some regularity conditions. In this work, we derive the scaled variogram and its approximations for a planar Poisson shot‐noise process using the modified Bessel function. In the case of reasonable high resolution of the observed image, the scaled variogram has an approximate functional relation to the point intensity, and in the case of high resolution the relation is proportional. As the obtained relations are approximative, they are tested on simulations. The existing orientation analysis method based on the proportional relation is further experimented on images with different resolutions. The new result, the asymptotic proportionality between the scaled variograms and the point intensities for a Poisson shot‐noise process, completes the earlier results for the Boolean models and for the dead leaves models.     

数字加速度传感器ADXL210在轨检仪中的应用

介绍了一种轨道检测仪及其重要传感器数字加速度传感器ADXL210的工作原理、功能、应用，并给出了ADXL210与MCS－51单片机的接口硬件电路和软件程序。     

On the precision of systematic sampling: a review of Matheron's transitive methods

G. Matheron's theory of regionalized variables provides a suitable basis for obtaining variance approximations for estimators of integrals from systematically sampled observations, with applications in geostatistics, image analysis, stereology and numerical quadrature techniques in general. The approximations are often fairly accurate for practical purposes. The methods are, however, not sufficiently widespread outside the field of geostatistics. The purpose of this paper is to present in an informal way the transitive part of the methods (relevant to the design-based approach) and a number of stereological applications.     

导引刚性平面两位置的曲柄摇杆机构极限位置处综合法

本文介绍了一种刚体导引的曲柄摇杆机构几何综合法。该方法不但使连杆实现给定的两个位置,而且在该两位置摇杆具有运动间歇,机构自锁和预知急回性能等特性。     

Estimation of subcellular organelle volume from ultrathin sections through centrioles with a discretized version of the vertical rotator

A method for the fast and efficient estimation of the volume (but not surface area) of subcellular organelles is presented. It consists of a rotator/coaxial-section approach based on the Pappus theorem and represents a discretized version of the vertical rotator where, instead of measuring intercept lengths, the points in distance classes are counted. Centrioles serve as a unique reference 'double-point' with constant size allowing unbiased cell selection from the whole population with equal probability and without the disector application. The sandwich-like method of sample preparation allows comparison of control and experimental cases with the same errors caused by overlapping and overprojection. Test experiments demonstrated that the vertical discretized rotator was an efficient and precise tool for the estimation of volume and that a few independent sections of unknown thickness were sufficient for the quantification of one experimental point.     

数控改造车床实现车铣削加工的方法

使用三坐标数控系统或串联使用两套二坐标数控系统,均能在改造的普通车床上实现零件的车铣削方式加工.本文叙述对普通车床的数控改造以及实现数控加工的各种方法.     

数控加工变螺距丝杠的研究

巧用数控车床:应用数控技术,两套数控系统串联使用,实现多坐标的联动控制,实现变速旋转运动,数控加工渐变距丝杠,数控加工匀变距丝杠,扩展了数控车床的加工范围.     

Reconstruction of the absorption spectrum of an object spot from the colour values of the corresponding pixel(s) in its digital image: the challenge of algal colours

A novel procedure for deriving the absorption spectrum of an object spot from the colour values of the corresponding pixel(s) in its image is presented. Any digital image acquired by a microscope can be used; typical applications are the analysis of cellular/subcellular metabolic processes under physiological conditions and in response to environmental stressors (e.g. heavy metals), and the measurement of chromophore composition, distribution and concentration in cells. In this paper, we challenged the procedure with images of algae, acquired by means of a CCD camera mounted onto a microscope. The many colours algae display result from the combinations of chromophores whose spectroscopic information is limited to organic solvents extracts that suffers from displacements, amplifications, and contraction/dilatation respect to spectra recorded inside the cell. Hence, preliminary processing is necessary, which consists of in vivo measurement of the absorption spectra of photosynthetic compartments of algal cells and determination of spectra of the single chromophores inside the cell. The final step of the procedure consists in the reconstruction of the absorption spectrum of the cell spot from the colour values of the corresponding pixel(s) in its digital image by minimization of a system of transcendental equations based on the absorption spectra of the chromophores under physiological conditions.