Development and validation of a projective measure of power motivation.

In an attempt to develop a valid measure of power motivation, 34 Ss aroused by cues relevant to power motivation and 34 control Ss wrote stories in response to 5 pictures. A scoring system was applied to the data which succeeded in differentiating the 2 groups. High n power scorers of the control group differed from low n power scorers of the same group on a number of other factors relevant to power motivation. The results support the validity of this projective method of measuring power motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental arousal of achievement motivation in adolescent girls.

2 groups of female high school students (40 achievers and 40 underachievers, matched for IQ) were exposed to 2 experimental conditions (Neutral and Achievement Oriented) and 2 types of pictures (those depicting males and those depicting females). The overall effect of the experimental achievement arsousal conditions for all girls was nonsignificant. However, a highly significant 2nd-order interaction effect was obtained: the achievement motivation scores of achievers increased significantly in response to Achievement Oriented conditions when they produced stories to pictures of females but did not increase in response to pictures of males; by contrast, the achievement motivation scores of underachievers increased significantly in response to Achievement Oriented conditions when they produced stories to pictures of males but did not increase in response to pictures of females. (43 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social motives and cognitive power–sex associations: Predictors of aggressive sexual behavior.

The present study investigated whether implicit social motives and cognitive power–sex associations would predict self-reports of aggressive sexual behavior. Participants wrote stories in response to Thematic Apperception Test pictures, which were scored for power and affiliation–intimacy motives. They also completed a lexical-decision priming task that provided an index of the strength of the cognitive association between the concepts of "power" and "sexuality." For men, high levels of power motivation and strong power–sex associations predicted more frequent aggression. There was also an interaction: Power motivation was unrelated to aggression for men with the weakest power–sex associations. For women, high levels of affiliation–intimacy motivation were associated with more frequent aggression. Strong power–sex associations were also predictive for women but only when affiliation–intimacy motivation was high. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance as a function of motive strength and expectancy of goal-attainment.

"Particular motives (Achievement, Affiliation, Power, etc.) are conceived as latent dispositions to strive for certain goal states (aims) that are engaged in performance of an act when the cues of the situation arouse the expectancy that performance of an act is instrumental to attainment of the goal of the motive. The total motivation to perform the act is conceived as a summation of strengths of all the motives that have been aroused by appropriate expectancies of goal-attainment cued-off by the situation. The relationship of achievement motive (as measured by imaginative TAT stories) to performance is shown to be significantly positive when the expectancy that performance is instrumental to producing a feeling of pride in accomplishment is aroused and few if any other expectancies of goal-attainment are aroused." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear of success: Motive and cognition.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate whether projective and objective methods of measuring fear of success (FOS) differentially enable the assessment of motives and cognitions. In Exp I, 67 male and 85 female 14- and 15-yr-olds wrote 3 stories to story cues representing sex-appropriate success, sex-inappropriate success, and sex-appropriate nonsuccess. Ss then completed a concern-over-negative-consequences-of-success scale (CONCOSS), and their stories were judged for negative content. In Exp II, 29 14- and 15-yr-old girls viewed a film conveying positive information about a specific sex-inappropriate activity, and measures of FOS were taken 2 days later. 23 controls who did not view the film completed the same procedure as Ss in Exp I. Overall results reveal that, contrary to the predictions of motivation theory, stories written in response to sex-inappropriate success cues did not correlate negatively with sex-appropriate nonsuccess cues. Viewing the film resulted in long-term positive changes in story content, consistent with the cognition explanation but not in long-term change in CONCOSS score, consistent with the motive explanation. Sex and ability differences were found on CONCOSS but not on the projective measure, and the 2 measures did not correlate. Findings suggest that sex-inappropriate cues are culturally marked and, lacking the ambiguity characteristic of other projective tests, elicit culturally based rather than motive-based stories. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of mystery.

Describes the development of the ways in which psychology has been used in the fictional world of the mystery/detective novel. Application of psychology has included (1) the use of experimental techniques, such as laboratory techniques and deductive reasoning, and (2) the use of applied theories, such as those on motivation or personality, by detectives, psychological consultants, and psychologist-detectives to solve crimes in popular literature. Some of these stories, such as those of C. D. King, a fiction writer who was also a psychologist, mock the usefulness of psychology. Other writers have been optimistic about psychology's helpfulness. The psychology of the detective story can be a fruitful area for exploring the usefulness of psychology to the solution of crimes and mysteries. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A reexamination of developmental changes in causal attributions.

Examined young children's use of the presence or absence of extrinsic reward to make inferences about the intrinsic motivation of another person. Previous research indicates that most kindergartners do not use a discounting heuristic, but it was hypothesized that these children may have misinterpreted the questions asked. 19 boys and 19 girls from kindergarten, 2nd and 4th grade were presented stories about children who were rewarded or not rewarded for performing various activities. Two forms of questioning about motivation were compared. When a traditional form was used, kindergartners did not show evidence of a discounting heuristic. When the questions were adjusted to ask more specifically about intrinsic motivation, Ss at all grade levels appeared to use a discounting heuristic. Results are discussed in terms of the parameters of the attributional effects, the possible mechanisms responsible for the phenomena, and the significance of the findings for other developmental research using self-report techniques. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differing about differences: The incidence and interpretation of violent fantasies in women and men.

In response to a critique by C. J. Benton et al (see record 1984-12235-001), the present authors argue that the Benton et al study is not a true replication, as they ignore the most crucial aspect of the research—the content analysis of violent TAT stories. Although Benton et al call attention to a major problem in motivation research, that of a priori classification of pictures, the present authors' content analysis was designed to eliminate such problems by focusing on how the stimulus was interpreted by the individual storywriter, not on how the picture was perceived by the examiner. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report and projective assessments of individual differences in children's perceptions.

Two studies examined the significance of children's perceptions of their classroom environment along autonomy vs external control dimensions. Study 1 related a self-report measure of the perceived classroom climate—R. deCharms's (1976) origin climate questionnaire—to other self-related constructs. Among 140 4th–6th graders, the more "origin" the Ss perceived in their classroom, the higher their perceived self-worth, cognitive competence, internal control, and mastery motivation, and the lower their perceived control by unknown sources or powerful others. These relationships were primarily due to individual differences within classrooms rather than average classroom differences. Ss also wrote projective stories about an ambiguous classroom scene. Ratings of these stories indicated that originlike behavior in Ss' fantasy was associated with autonomy-oriented teachers and low aggression. Self-report and projective methods converged, particularly for Ss whose self-reported perceptions were extreme. In Study 2, with 578 Ss, relative contributions of classroom and individual difference effects were further examined. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of perceived autonomy and issues in assessment strategies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's understanding of ambivalence and causal theories of emotions.

Investigated a 4-stage developmental sequence in children's understanding of ambivalence. At the highest level of this sequence, children understand that contradictory feelings can coexist at the same time toward the same target in terms of a framework in which it is recognized that the 2 feelings influence one another. 20 4–5 yr olds, 20 7–8 yr olds, and 20 10–11 yr olds were presented with 2 tape-recorded stories in which the protagonist could be construed as feeling happy and sad or anger and love. Raters scored the Ss' responses to a structured interview about the stories in terms of the proposed sequence. Separate parts of the protocols were assessed independently with respect to a proposed sequence in children's causal theories of emotions. According to this sequence, children's understanding of feelings develops from an externally based theory in which feelings are wedded to events to an internally based theory in which feelings largely depend on memories, thoughts, and attitudes. Results support both hypothesized developmental progressions and show significant relationships between the 2 domains of Ss' understanding of emotions. Findings suggest that internal states' mediation of emotional responses may be an important component in understanding ambivalence and that the motivation to integrate conflicting feelings may play a role in promoting the external to internal shift in children's causal theories of emotions. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathy and responsibility in the motivation of children's helping.

To investigate affective and dispositional factors in the motivation of children's helping, 60 children ranging from preschool to sixth grade were observed in laboratory distress incidents involving, as potential recipients of aid, a kitten, an adult experimenter, and a mother with an infant. Positive, negative, and neutral affect expressions were observed in two of the three distress incidents, and prosocial dispositions were assessed through children's attributions regarding the motives and feelings of characters in eight stories involving persons in distress. Results indicated that helping tended to be positively correlated with positive affect and negatively correlated with negative and neutral affect. Further evidence suggested that these correlations were primarily attributable to positive affects associated with helping itself rather than to affects experienced in witnessing the other's distress. Among story attributions, attributions of guilt were strongly and consistently related to helping and affect expression in the total sample and across grade groupings. Attributions of empathy and altruism were also related to helping, but only in the total sample. These results are interpreted as suggesting that it may not be empathic arousal alone that is most important for the motivation of helping, but the subjective meaning of that arousal in terms of an accompanying sense of responsibility for the other person's plight. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A measure of increased temporal perspective in successfully treated adolescent delinquent boys.

The proposition that the temporal dimension of fantasy, which is usually restricted in delinquent adolescents, could be extended by suitable psychotherapy was tested and confirmed. Using time spans in TAT-type stories as the measure of temporal perspective, comparison was made between stories told by 10 delinquent boys before and after vocationally oriented psychotherapy, as compared to stories told by 10 matched, untreated controls. Increase in prospective fantasy was greatest in stories told to cards designed to tap self-image and control of aggression. Increase in past-oriented fantasies was greatest in stories told to control of aggression cards. Changes in certain fantasy measures correlated with changes in practical achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deconstructing the monolith: Differences in attitudes about mammography among low-income African American women.

The purpose of this study was to explore how health beliefs may vary within a minority group. In this mixed-method study, 63 low-income African American women engaged in six focus groups discussing beliefs that inhibited or facilitated mammography. Differences in cognitive complexity, self-efficacy, and attributions of causality occurred across neighborhoods despite the geographic proximity and demographic similarity. The attitude change that occurred during the discussion suggested ways to construct effective health interventions. The data suggest (a) that women were similarly knowledgeable about mammography and cancer, (b) knowledge did not correspond with attitudes, (c) attitudes must be addressed before knowledge can be utilized, (d) attitudes are developed and maintained within neighborhood social networks and that stories maintain these attitudes, (e) increasing the discussion among peers should lead to greater attitude change and discussion leads to increased thought, and (f) motivation and follow through are connected to women’s roles within their communities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The power motive and managerial success in a professionally oriented service industry organization.

Examined the validity of D. C. McClelland and D. Burnham's (1967) leadership motive pattern (LMP) for 2 levels of management personnel in a professionally oriented, service industry organization. The study was conducted in a profit-making company that provides second-language instruction to full-time students; 550 people were employed at 23 centers. All 21 center managers and 18 curriculum directors participated. Managers completed a TAT designed to elicit stories about power, achievement, and motivation. Three types of outcome measures were used: attitudinal variables taken from survey responses of subordinates, objective measures of administrative performance taken from company records, and a variable representing the importance or status of the location in which the manager worked. The LMP was significantly related to the importance of the center in which the manager worked; however, the LMP was not related to administrative job performance or subordinate morale. For the subsample of first-line supervisors, need for affiliation was related to job performance and favorable subordinate attitudes, not need for power or the LMP. Results are interpreted in light of the technical/professional nature of the employee sample and support the suggestion that the motivation to influence others may not be critical for managerial success in technical/professional settings. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role conflict and symptoms of psychological distress in college-educated women.

Studied sex role attitudes, need for achievement, and employment patterns of 136 women's college graduates out of college 10 yrs and 132 out of college 25 yrs in relation to symptoms of mental illness using a 3-wave mail questionnaire technique. Questionnaire returns totaled 71% of the selected sample and established validity of the Twenty-Two Item Screening Score in mail questionnaire studies. Neither employment status nor achievement motivation, assessed by stories written in response to verbal cues, were significantly related to symptom scores. However, Ss with contemporary sex role orientations, as indicated by the Revised Fand Inventory, exhibited significantly higher symptom scores. Also, the class out of college 10 yrs had significantly more members (a) with high need for achievement, (b) with contemporary sex role orientation, and (c) who had advanced degrees and were earning higher incomes. They also had significantly higher symptom scores. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Images of violence in Thematic Apperception Test stories

TAT stories written by 88 male and 50 female undergraduates were coded for the presence or absence of violent imagery and for the context in which the violence occurred. Results confirm previous findings of a greater incidence of violence in males' fantasy stories (M. S. Horner, see record 1973-09174-001) but extend these findings to show a sex difference in the distribution as well—violence in males' stories was more frequent in response to situations of affiliation, whereas violence in females' stories appeared more often in response to situations of achievement. Interpreting fantasies of violence as indicative of the perception of danger, it is suggested that males and females perceived danger in different contexts and construed danger in different ways. This study offers a new understanding of Horner's research and points to the relationship between impulsive expression and social perception, suggesting that the differences in aggression in males and females may be due to whether they perceive relationships as dangerous or safe. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The affiliation motive and perceptual sensitivity to faces.

An attempt was made to predict from imaginative measures of the affiliation motive the frequency with which S selects human faces from similar but nonhuman figures in a perceptual task. The Ss were 93 male undergraduates who responded to pictures with imaginative stories scored for n Affiliation. A month later they were introduced to the perceptual task which required that they state which of 4 figures flashed on a screen was clearest, all stimuli being below the recognition threshold. On each trial 1 of the 4 stimuli was a face and the others were similar but affiliation-neutral. Ss high in n Affiliation recognized faces significantly more frequently than those low in n Affiliation. Thus, the predicted relationship between motivation and the perceptual selection of motive-relevant stimuli was supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The achievement motive.

Reviews "The achievement motive," by D. C. McClelland, J. W. Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. L. Lowell (see record 2006-09558-000). This book is primarily a progress report on a program of research which thus far has shown very promising results. The authors have worked out a scheme for measuring the achievement motive under standardized conditions, thus making available for controlled study one of the most important human strivings. The device for measuring the achievement motive is derived from the Thematic Apperception Test: subjects are asked to write stories in response to four pictures. The scoring scheme has been worked out with great care and is both efficient and reliable. This basic experiment was repeated with several different groups, including a group of Navaho boys. In their theory of motivation the authors are strongly influenced by Hebb: "our own theory in many respects picks up where he leaves off." Their system, moreover, follows Young's lead in basing motives on affective arousal. All motives are learned; what is unlearned is affect, which occurs whenever stimuli or situations produce a significant change in the organism's adaptation level. Changes in adaptation level, with their accompanying affect, become the basis for learning motives. These few sentences must suffice here to indicate the general nature of the theory, which though still tentative is worked out in considerable detail with abundant reference to current research. To me it seems an important broadening of the concept of motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

IDA Comparison of IBC-Designed and DDD-Designed Six-Story Light-Frame Wood Buildings

The current International Building Code (IBC) allows wood-frame (i.e., light-frame wood) construction to be three stories high or four stories high if sprinklers are included in the design. Several jurisdictions within the United States have opted to allow four and five stories if sprinklers are present. This paper presents a comprehensive numerical analysis of a six-story wood-frame building designed on the basis of the 2006 IBC methodology and a building designed by using the direct-displacement design (DDD) approach. The objectives of the design methods are different and are explained herein. Incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was used to numerically investigate the response of the buildings on the basis of two criteria: the peak interstory drift and the building’s base shear capacity. Gypsum wall board was included in both models, but exterior finishes (e.g., stucco) were not.     

Effects of alcohol on memory.

Ss wrote TAT stories at 3 points during social drinking in an experimental condition (with alcoholic beverages = wet, N = 18), or in a control condition (dry, N = 17). On the next day Ss were asked to describe the TAT pictures and to reproduce the stories they had written before. Several measures of recall were developed. Results showed: (a) A linear decrease in memory as a function of alcohol consumption. (b) No decrease in memory for stories written immediately before drinking. (c) An improvement for the dry group in the recall of stories written late as compared with early. (d) An attenuation of stable individual differences in memory in the wet condition. (e) Selective forgetting due to the presence of "physical sex" in the original stories, when these were written after drinking; also, selective forgetting of pictures which elicited such stories. (f) Selective remembering of stories with "physical sex" from some dry administrations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)