Ethnocentrism and the value of a human life.

Drawing on theories of intergroup prejudice and decision making, the authors examined how much participants valued lives of conationals and enemy civilians. Using decisions made under risk, Experiment 1 showed that Americans valued Iraqi and American lives equally when outcomes for those nations did not compete but valued American lives more under outcome competition. Experiments 2 and 3 extended this finding by illustrating ethnocentric valuation even when large numbers of lives were at stake: The number of lives at stake mattered less for enemy civilians than it did for conational combatants. Experiment 4 provided additional evidence of this ethnocentric indifference to magnitude, regardless of combatant status of the conationals' lives. In all experiments, individual difference measures associated with prejudice (e.g., group identification and prejudice, empathy, social dominance orientation, social attitudes) corresponded to ethnocentric valuation measured in decisions. Results demonstrate that categorization, competitive context, and individual propensities for prejudice influence how much one values lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnocentrism and stimulus generalization.

"This study is an attempt to demonstrate that ethnocentrism is related to an 'over-generalization process' as has been postulated by various authors. The performance of a group of student nurses on a stimulus-generalization task was correlated with their scores on the California E scale yielding a significant μ = .44. Some possible theoretical implications are discussed and mention is made of further research which is in progress." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnocentrism and misanthropy.

"Twenty-nine items from existing scales of ethnic prejudice were rewritten so that the terms 'people' or 'most people' or 'humans' were substituted for the specific minorities originally designated. The scale thus constructed (termed M for misanthropy) was found to be correlated .43 (.53 when corrected for attenuation) with a 20-item version of the UC-POS scale for general ethnic intolerance. The results of the study were discussed with reference to the possible connections between prejudice and misanthropy." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnocentrism and stimulus generalization: A replication and further study.

Data were previously reported giving "support to the hypothesis that ethnocentrism represents an 'overgeneralization phenomena.' " In a study of 60 female student nurses, aged 18 through 22, who were given the MMPI, the CVS Intelligence Scale, and the California Ethnocentrism Scale as well as two stimulus generalization (SG) tasks, significant correlations were not found between E Scale scores and total error scores on each stimulus generalization task. Previous positive finding "must therefore probably be attributed to chance. While present results do not preclude the possibility that ethnocentrism is related to overgeneralization in thinking, the functions involved in performance on the tasks investigated do not appear to be on the same psychological continuum." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive performance inconsistency: Intraindividual change and variability.

Although many studies have examined inconsistency of cognitive performance, few have examined how inconsistency changes over time. 91 older adults (age 52 to 79) were tested weekly for 36 consecutive weeks on a series of multitrial memory speed (i.e., letter recognition) tasks. A number of multivariate techniques were used to examine how individuals' level of inconsistency changed across weeks and how this change was related to interindividual differences in age and intelligence. Results indicated that (a) inconsistency of performance is a construct separate from the underlying performance ability (i.e., memory speed); (b) inconsistency reduces exponentially with practice; (c) individuals with higher scores on tests of fluid general intelligence (Gf) reached lower asymptotic levels of inconsistency compared to lower scorers; and (d) after controlling for the systematic effects of practice, variability in inconsistency from week-to-week was more pronounced for individuals with lower Gf scores compared to individuals with higher scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neurocognitive markers of cognitive impairment: Exploring the roles of speed and inconsistency.

A well-known challenge for research in the cognitive neuropsychology of aging is to distinguish between the deficits and changes associated with normal aging and those indicative of early cognitive impairment. In a series of 2 studies, the authors explored whether 2 neurocognitive markers, speed (mean level) and inconsistency (intraindividual variability), distinguished between age groups (64-73 and 74-90+ years) and cognitive status groups (nonimpaired, mildly impaired, and moderately impaired). Study 1 (n = 416) showed that both level and inconsistency distinguished between the age and 2 cognitive status (not impaired, mildly impaired) groups, with a modest tendency for inconsistency to predict group membership over and above mean level. Study 2 (n = 304) replicated these results but extended them because of the qualifying effects associated with the unique moderately impaired oldest group. Specifically, not only were the groups more firmly distinguished by both indicators of speed, but evidence for the differential contribution of performance inconsistency was stronger. Neurocognitive markers of speed and inconsistency may be leading indicators of emerging cognitive impairment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Other Animals as "Psychopaths."

The author describes a female cat that was placed in a private home as a pet instead of being vivisected or extirpated following experimental testing. This cat was the only one that broke through the wind-barrier, showed no nervous symptoms, was generally relaxed and friendly, and was pleasantly responsive to the experimenters. The cat's social, sexual, and maternal behaviors are described. The major point to be made here is that attributes of the human psychopath have been observed in this cat, and that this personality syndrome may represent a dimension of animal behavior that could account for variations in reactions to stress, conflict, and "treatment" in animal experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thinking and caring about cognitive inconsistency: When and for whom does attitudinal ambivalence feel uncomfortable?

The relation between conflicting evaluations of attitude objects (potential ambivalence) and associated unpleasant feelings (felt ambivalence) was investigated. Participants indicated their potential and felt ambivalence about capital punishment (Studies 1 and 2) and abortion (Studies 1-3). The simultaneous accessibility (J. N. Bassili, 1996) of participants' potential ambivalence (i.e., how quickly and equally quickly conflicting evaluations came to mind) was measured using response latency (Studies 1-3) and manipulated by repeated expression (Study 3). The relation between potential ambivalence and felt ambivalence was strongest when potential ambivalence was high in simultaneous accessibility (Studies 1-3). This pattern was most pronounced for participants who were high in preference for consistency (Study 3; R. B. Cialdini, M. R. Trost, & T. J. Newsom, 1995). Similarities of ambivalence and cognitive dissonance constructs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unique roles of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathic traits in distress tolerance.

Previous research indicates that individuals with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) evidence low distress tolerance, which signifies impaired ability to persist in goal-directed behavior during an aversive situation, and is associated with a variety of poor interpersonal and drug use outcomes. Based on theory and research indicating that psychopathic traits are associated with hypo-reactivity in emotional responding, a unique hypothesis emerges where psychopathic traits should have the opposite effect of ASPD and be related to high levels of distress tolerance. In a sample of 107 substance-dependent patients in an inner-city substance use residential treatment facility, this hypothesis was supported. ASPD was related to lower distress tolerance, while psychopathic traits were related to higher distress tolerance, with each contributing unique variance. Findings are discussed in relation to different presentations of distress tolerance as a function of psychopathic traits among those with an ASPD diagnosis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acceptance and rejection of arguments in relation to attitude strength, critical ability, and intolerance of inconsistency.

165 male students judged the logical validity of 24 religious syllogisms (12 proreligion and 12 antireligion) and 16 neutral syllogisms which were randomly interspersed. A Syllogism Evaluation score was defined as the number of proreligion syllogisms marked sound + the number of antireligious syllogisms marked unsound. A Critical Ability score was defined as the number of neutral syllogisms correctly answered. Subsequently, Ss' responses to the conclusions of the religious syllogisms provided a measure of proreligious attitude, and Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale and Budner's Intolerance of Ambiguity Test were assumed to provide measures of intolerance of inconsistency. Results show that, for Ss with a proreligious attitude (N = 131), Syllogism Evaluation scores are positively correlated with strength of proreligious attitude (p     

Authoritarianism and reactions to "sputniks."

"This study investigated the relationship between authoritarianism, as measured by an F scale, and changing or retaining predictions following a natural influence event. Following Sputnik I, college Ss made forced-choice predictions… about which nation is most likely to get to the moon first. The same prediction was again elicited following Sputnik II. Among Ss who initially favored the U. S., those who did not change their prediction… received significantly higher scores on the F scale than did those who changed their initial predictions." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater reliability and "judgmental demoralization."

"Undergraduate students Ss (N = 120) were divided into six groups and asked to rate lists of food names for preference value. Two of the groups rated a total of 30 foods, two groups rated 45 foods, and the remaining two rated 60 foods with different lists of foods used with each group. Measures of rater reliability and rater bias were computed for foods in ordinal positions 1 to 10 and 21 to 30 and the transformed measures analyzed by analysis of variance. Results indicated that the main variables of the total number of stimuli rated by the Ss and the ordinal position of the foods in the list had no significant effect on either reliability or bias. It was concluded that judgmental fatigue and judgmental demoralization had no effect upon the reliability of food-preference ratings." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In defense of "bootstrapping."

Responds to A. G. Weinstein's (1972) comments on R. M. Dawes's (see record 1971-25701-001) findings supporting "bootstrapping" in Dawes's study of graduate admissions. Bootstrapping can be used when actuarial analysis is impossible (e.g., criterion information is lacking or unavailable until after decisions are made). It is not implied that linear composites based on paramorphic representations are superior to those based on actuarial analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater reliability and "judgmental fatigue."

"Subjects (N = 120) were randomly divided into six groups and asked to rate a total of 45 food stimuli for preference value using a nine-point scale… . Rater reliability was significantly different between the individual lists, but was not affected by either the length of the list or by the temporal order of the list in the series. Rater bias was unaffected by list, length, or trial variables. It was concluded that "judgmental fatigue" does not affect rater reliability or bias when the Ss report food preference self-ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Flavor preexposure and "learned safety."

Conducted 3 experiments with a total of 131 male Wistar rats. Results indicate that (a) a single preexposure to a distinctive flavor resulted in both a retardation of aversion learning (if the flavor was later paired with toxicosis) and a preference for this flavor (if the flavor was not paired with toxicosis); (b) preexposure-induced preferences were retained over a 24-day period and were not attributable to thirst reduction consequent upon ingestion; and (c) Ss evidenced a preference for a preexposed solution by subsequently ingesting relatively great amounts of this solution when it was the only fluid available (as well as by choosing it over an alternative, simultaneously available solution). Results are discussed in terms of a "learned safety" interpretation of the deleterious effects of flavor preexposure on flavor-aversion learning. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need correlates of "gullibility."

The gullibility of college students in accepting false personality analyses of themselves was found to be positively related to the achievement, deference, and introception variables of the EPPS among male Ss. Among female Ss, gullibility was positively related to abasement and introception and negatively related to endurance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Authoritarianism and "Tolerance of Trait Inconsistency."

The California F Scale was found to correlate positively with a paper-and-pencil measure of propensity to expect people to be thoroughly good or thoroughly bad. As a further explanation of this relationship, Ss in a laboratory situation were given mildly derogatory information about one respected partner and nonderogatory information about another respected partner. Ss who had scored high on the F Scale resisted the mildly derogatory information and continued to rate their 2 partners about equally favorably. Low F Ss lowered their evaluations of the partner about whom mildly derogatory information had been received and gave their 2 partners final ratings which were more unequally favorable than those given by high scorers. Low F Ss also conformed more unequally to the judgments expressed by the 2 partners than did high scorers. These experimental findings are interpreted to reflect the greater reluctance of high scorers to believe that "good people" possess a mixture of good and bad attributes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on "ethnocentrism" and acquiescent response sets.

93 high school students were given the 9-item E scale, the reversed F scale, and the Gough intolerance scale. Even though the Gough intolerance scale correlated positively with the E scale it also correlated positively with agreement to reversed F scale items. The results emphasize the "necessity of controlling item form in studying certain attitude contents, such as 'ethnocentrism' or 'authoritarianism.' " (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A "science of complex judgment."

Psychologists tend to neglect the study of complex judgment. "Never before in history have so many been faced with so many complex decisions." Thus, "… it should be the concern of psychologists as an organization to consider effective means for increasing our contributions in the realm of complex decision-making." The concept of scope which "… is defined as the relative omnipotence which observations, measures, or statistics possess in the total decision complex of which they are a part" is proposed and discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)