食品的滋味研究(上)

食品的风味主要是由香气、滋味、口感等所构成，而滋味则是决定食品品质的一个重要因素。本文对各种味觉的形成机理、食品中的重要呈味物质等进行了综述，并详细介绍了鲜味物质间的相互作用，此外还介绍了几种味感改性物质。     

The effect on taste upon the introduction of heteroatoms in sulphamates

The effect on taste of introducing a heteroatom(s) in place of a carbon atom(s) in sulphamate tastants has been examined in this work. Seventy sets of heterosulphamates and their corresponding carbon analogues (130 compounds in total) were examined. This interesting database was assembled by bringing together series of heterocompounds and suitable nonhetero analogues from the literature, by the synthesis in this work of 15 new heterosulphamates and two new carbosulphamates, which was necessary “to match up” with known carbosulphamate analogues and by making taste predictions for ten carbosulphamates which are unknown, using existing well-established structure-taste relationships (SARs). A sulphur atom replaced a carbon atom in 18 cases, either oxygen or an –OH group replaced carbon in 16 cases, and there are 29 examples where a nitrogen atom or an –NH group replaced carbon. Finally, there are six instances of a “double carbon–carbon, nitrogen–nitrogen substitution” and one of a treble carbon, nitrogen substitution. The overall picture shows that in 33 instances no change in taste was found when substitution occurred, in 29 instances sweet taste (S) was removed giving a nonsweet compound (N), and in eight instances a nonsweet material (N) became sweet (S). Replacement of oxygen by sulphur resulted in the introduction of sweetness in three cases out of four examined. Several important findings were made and a number of new structure-taste relationships have been derived for heterosulphamates.     

Evaluation of taste compounds of Swiss cheese (Emmentaler)

The following substances were evaluated as potent taste compounds: acetic acid, propionic acid, lactic acid, succinic acid and glutamic acid, each in free form and/or as ammonium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium salts, as well as the corresponding chlorides and phosphates. Magnesium and calcium propionate mainly caused the sweetish note in the taste profile of Emmentaler. Although bitter tasting amino acids and peptides occurred in the cheese sample, they were not detected in the taste profile.Presented in part at the Wartburg Aroma Symposium, Eisenach March 1–4, 1994H.-D. Belitz died on March 31, 1993     

Tough package, strong taste: The influence of packaging design on taste impressions and product evaluations

This study examines the influence of packaging design on taste impressions. Building forth on research addressing transfer effects of symbolic associations from one sense to another, in this study it was studied if, and to what extent, potency-related associations portrayed by shape curvature and color saturation of yoghurt packages transfer to subsequent taste experiences. Furthermore, the influence of participants’ sensitivity to design was taken into account. Data were collected during a field study in the entrance hall of a large supermarket. Results indicate that associations portrayed by shape curvature in particular transfer to taste experiences, but that these effects are most pronounced for participants with a sensitivity to design. In addition, the findings presented indicate that shape curvature and color saturation may impact more general product evaluations and price expectations as well.     

The impact of sugar-related claims on perceived healthfulness,caloric value and expected taste of food products

Food packaging usually includes multiple cues, including claims about nutrients that may modulate how the consumer perceives (and behaves towards) the product. In the current work, we systematically examined how different types of claims about sugar influenced the perception of food product categories (i.e., yogurts, ice creams, cookies, and breakfast cereals). In two experiments (combined n = 406), participants were asked to evaluate the perceived healthfulness, caloric value, and expected taste of products with (vs. without) sugar-related claims. Specifically, the claims were on the sugar content (“0% sugar”, “sugar-free”, “no added sugars”, “low sugar” - Experiment 1) or on the type of sugars or sweeteners of natural origin (“sucrose”, “cane sugar”, “honey” and “stevia” - Experiment 2).Experiment 1 revealed that all products with sugar-related claims were rated as healthier, less caloric, and less tasty than the regular alternatives. Still, products with the “low sugar” claim were perceived as the least healthy, most caloric, and tastiest. In Experiment 2, we observed that products with “stevia” claim were rated as healthier, less caloric, and less tasty than regular products. In both experiments, the frequency of consumption of products with sugar-related claims was positively associated with the general perception of these products, the influence of nutritional information on consumption decisions, attention to sugar intake, and interest in nutrition.Overall, our results show that sugar-related claims may influence consumer's perceptions about food products, but the direction of that influence depends on the type of claim and evaluative dimension.     

A bittersweet symphony: Systematically modulating the taste of food by changing the sonic properties of the soundtrack playing in the background

We report an experiment designed to investigate the consequences of manipulating the pitch of the background auditory stimulation on the taste of food. The participants in the present study evaluated four pieces of cinder toffee while listening to two auditory soundtracks, presented in a random order. One soundtrack was designed to be more crossmodally (or “synaesthetically”) congruent with a bitter-tasting food whereas the other soundtrack was designed to be more congruent with a sweet-tasting food instead. The participants rated each sample using three computer based line scales: One scale was anchored with the words bitter and sweet. The second scale required participants to localize the taste/flavour percept elicited by the food (at the front vs. back of their mouth). The third scale involved participants giving a hedonic evaluation of the foodstuff. As expected, the cinder toffee samples tasted while listening to the presumptively ‘bitter’ soundtrack were rated as tasting significantly more bitter than when exactly the same foodstuff was evaluated while listening to the ‘sweet’ soundtrack instead. These results provide the first convincing empirical demonstration that the crossmodal congruency of a background soundtrack can be used to modify the taste (and presumably also flavour) of a foodstuff.     

Optimization and validation of a taste dilution analysis to characterize wine taste

ABSTRACT:  A procedure for the general taste dilution analysis (TDA) of wine has been optimized and applied to characterize the tastants of 5 different wines. Samples are concentrated first by vacuum distillation at 20 °C to obtain a dearomatized concentrate. Such concentrate is redissolved in water and injected in a semipreparative C18-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column. The effluent is separated in fractions that are collected and concentrated by vacuum distillation. Sequential dilutions of the fractions are further evaluated by a sensory panel to assess the intensity of the basic tastes and in-mouth sensations. Fractions were also submitted to HPLC-mass spectrometry (MS) analysis to screen for known tastants of wines. The Taste Dilution chromatograms showed that taste differences between wines are mainly located in fractions 1, 2, and 6, and are mainly related to bitterness and astringency. Different aspects of the method setup and of its reliability are evaluated and discussed.     

On the bright side: The influence of brightness on overall taste intensity perception

Ambient light luminance (i.e., brightness or dimness) is a frequently used tool by managers to enhance the overall ambience in their restaurants. The current research explores how a change in a restaurant’s ambient brightness influences the overall taste intensity perception of the food that is being served there. We conducted a between-group experiment in a field setting (i.e., a fine-dining restaurant), where we manipulated the illuminance level of the ambient light (dim vs. bright). Guests were served a dish—tailored to our research question—and asked to evaluate its overall taste intensity. The results demonstrate that guests exposed to the bright ambient light perceived the overall taste of the dish as more intense as opposed to guests exposed to the dim ambient light. The results thus show that modifying the ambient illuminance level in a restaurant does not only affect the overall ambience but also changes the overall taste experience of the food being served. This finding is not only theoretically relevant for research on multisensory integration, but it also provides tools for taste modulation, and—as such—for strategies to decrease salt and sugar consumption among diners.     

Cross-modal interactions between taste and smell: Odour-induced saltiness enhancement depends on salt level

In recent years, health concerns related to salt have led to extensive research on low-salt foods. One major remaining issue is to reduce sodium content while still providing the salty fix, to maintain food appreciation, acceptance and choice. Using well-selected odours has been proposed to compensate for sodium chloride reduction in food, due to the cross-modal interactions between odour and taste. However, interactions between taste and odour, with regards to saltiness, remain poorly investigated. Moreover, although a few studies have assessed the influences of odour and sweet supra-threshold intensity on cross-modal interactions, none focused directly on how they influence saltiness. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to determine if the level of saltiness, i.e., the concentration of sodium chloride in aqueous solutions, influences odour-induced saltiness enhancement (OISE). A panel of 64 untrained panellists evaluated the saltiness of water solutions including salt and a tasteless odorant. Following a full factorial design, three concentrations of salt were used in conjunction with three aroma conditions. The results confirmed that OISE depends on odour-taste congruency but also clearly indicated that OISE depends on salt concentration (salty intensity): the saltiness of a low- or medium-salt-content solution increased significantly when subjects perceived simultaneously the congruent sardine aroma, but OISE was no more significant with high-saltiness solutions. This effect has to be taken into account when using OISE as a compensation strategy in low-salt food.     

Haptic exploration of plateware alters the perceived texture and taste of food

We report two naturalistic citizen science experiments designed to highlight the influence of the texture of plateware on people’s rating of the mouthfeel and taste of food (specifically, biscuits) sampled from that plateware. In the first experiment, participants tasted a biscuit from a pair of plates, one having a rough and the other a smooth finish. In the second experiment, participants tasted biscuits and jelly babies; participants rated the mouthfeel and taste of the two foodstuffs. The results both confirm and extend previous findings suggesting that haptically and visually perceived texture can influence both oral-somatosensory judgments of texture as well as, in this case, the reported taste or flavour of the food itself. The crossmodal effects reported here are explained in terms of the notion of sensation transference. These results have potentially important implications for everything from the design of the tactile aspects of packaging through to the design of serviceware in the setting of the restaurant.     

Cup texture influences taste and tactile judgments in the evaluation of specialty coffee

It has been demonstrated previously that the surface textures of product packaging and servingware can impact the perceived taste and mouthfeel of various different foods and beverages. The present study was designed to investigate whether coffee cups with different surface textures would influence the judgment of taste and mouthfeel attributes in specialty coffee by experts (Q-graders) and amateur consumers alike. A total of 231 participants were tested in one of the three studies. A preliminary test conducted at a specialty coffee event in Russia indicated that rubbing a swatch of sandpaper whilst drinking coffee influenced perceived body and aftertaste qualities. In the two main studies (Experiment 1 for Q-graders, and Experiment 2 for amateurs), the participants evaluated a sample of specialty coffee (a different coffee in each study) served in either a smooth or a rough ceramic cup. The coffee was rated by the Q-graders as tasting significantly more acidic when sampled from the rough cup, as opposed to the smooth, whereas the amateurs perceived the coffee as being significantly sweeter when tasted from the smooth cup rather than from the rough cup instead. Both Q-graders and amateurs judged the aftertaste as significantly dryer when tasted from the rough rather than from the smooth cup. The perception of body was not significantly affected in any of the experiments. These results demonstrate that haptic cues influence the judgment of basic tastes as well as mouthfeel attributes in specialty coffee, for both experts and amateur consumers. Such results should be considered by the industry when designing innovative coatings for coffee cups. In addition to innovation, though, it is important to create cups that convey some functional and/or perceptual benefit for the coffee drinking experience.     

Bioresponse-guided decomposition of roast coffee beverage and identification of key bitter taste compounds

Sensory-guided fractionation of a roasted coffee brew by means of sequential solvent extraction, ultrafiltration, and RP-HPLC demonstrated a group of ethyl acetate soluble compounds formed from O-hydroxycinnamoyl quinic acid derivatives upon coffee roasting as the key compounds contributing to the bitter taste of roasted coffee beverages. LC-MS/MS studies, 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopy, syntheses, and model roast experiments with 5-O-caffeoyl- and 5-O-feruloylquinic acid led to the unequivocal identification of 3-O-caffeoyl-γ-quinide (2a), 4-O-caffeoyl-γ-quinide (3a), 5-O-caffeoyl-epi-δ-quinide (4a), 4-O-caffeoyl-muco-γ-quinide (5a), 5-O-caffeoyl-muco-γ-quinide (6a), 3-O-feruloyl-γ-quinide (2b), and 4-O-feruloyl-γ-quinide (3b) as intense coffee bitter tastants. Besides these individual bitter compounds, a highly complex and intensely bitter HPLC fraction was isolated from the ethyl acetate extractables of coffee brew. Application of COSY spectroscopy and alkaline hydrolytic degradation gave strong evidence that the bitter taste of that fraction is due to a multiplicity of rather complex quinic acid lactone isomers multiply esterified with p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid, and quinic acid, respectively. As representatives of this fraction, 3,4-O-dicaffeoyl-γ-quinide (10), 3,5-O-dicaffeoyl-epi-δ-quinide (11), and 4,5-O-dicaffeoyl-muco-γ-quinide (12) have been isolated, purified, and identified as strongly bitter-tasting compounds in roasted coffee. For the first time, bitter taste recognition thresholds were determined for the individual compounds showing that, strongly depending on their chemical structure, the bitter threshold levels ranged between 9.8 and 180 μmol/l (water).     

The texture and taste of food in the brain

Oral texture is represented in the brain areas that represent taste, including the primary taste cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the amygdala. Some neurons represent viscosity, and their responses correlate with the subjective thickness of a food. Other neurons represent fat in the mouth, and represent it by its texture not by its chemical composition, in that they also respond to paraffin oil and silicone in the mouth. The discovery has been made that these fat-responsive neurons encode the coefficient of sliding friction and not viscosity, and this opens the way for the development of new foods with the pleasant mouth feel of fat and with health-promoting designed nutritional properties. A few other neurons respond to free fatty acids (such as linoleic acid), do not respond to fat in the mouth, and may contribute to some “off” tastes in the mouth. Some other neurons code for astringency. Others neurons respond to other aspects of texture such as the crisp fresh texture of a slice of apple versus the same apple after blending. Different neurons respond to different combinations of these texture properties, oral temperature, taste, and in the orbitofrontal cortex to olfactory and visual properties of food. In the orbitofrontal cortex, the pleasantness and reward value of the food is represented, but the primary taste cortex represents taste and texture independently of value. These discoveries were made in macaques that have similar cortical brain areas for taste and texture processing as humans, and complementary human functional neuroimaging studies are described.     

养殖大黄鱼滋味成分及其呈味贡献的研究

以养殖大黄鱼（Pseudosciaena crocea）为研究对象,通过对其鱼肉游离氨基酸、呈味核苷酸、氧化三甲胺、甘氨酸甜菜碱、有机酸、呈味矿物元素等水溶性呈味化合物的检测,分析其对滋味的贡献。结果表明:养殖大黄鱼的游离氨基酸总量为2463.8mg·kg-1,其中精氨酸对滋味贡献最大;IMP、AMP、GMP、TMAO、甘氨酸甜菜碱对滋味有重要贡献;琥珀酸可能是形成大黄鱼整体滋味的主要物质之一;K+是主要呈味离子;味精当量（EUC）高达13.43g MSG/100g,呈味强度值达447.67,这主要得益于高含量的IMP,是大黄鱼滋味鲜美的主要原因。      

Perception of taste intensity in solutions of random-coil polysaccharides above and below c

Sensory paired comparison tests were used to study differences in taste intensity in solutions of hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) at concentrations above (1.0% w/w) and below (0.2% w/w) c^*, the coil-overlap concentration (the point at which viscosity changes abruptly with increasing thickener). The sweetness intensities of aspartame (250 ppm), sucrose (5% w/w), fructose (4.5% w/w) and neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (39 ppm) and the saltiness of sodium chloride (0.35%) were all found to be significantly reduced in the more viscous HPMC solution. There was no significant effect of HPMC concentration on the acidity of citric acid (600 ppm) or the bitterness of quinine hydrochloride (26 ppm). The sweetness intensities of sucrose and aspartame were likewise investigated in two further hydrocolloid solutions, guar gum and λ-carrageenan. Experiments were designed so that the ratios of the thickener concentrations (above and below c^*) to their measured c^* values remained constant. The sweetness of sucrose was found to be significantly reduced in the more viscous guar gum solution (P<0.05) and that of aspartame was reduced in the λ-carrageenan above c^* (P<0.001). A multiple paired comparison design was used to show that the perceived sweetness of 6.5% sucrose in 1.0% HPMC did not differ significantly from that of 5% sucrose in 0.2% HPMC. The magnitude of effect with aspartame was broadly analogous.     

EEG correlates of perceived food product similarity in a cross-modal taste-visual task

The most common tools to understand perception of food products are hall tests, surveys and observations. However, these approaches require large samples to get reliable results and they are rather costly and time-consuming. Furthermore, they are also highly expert-dependent and rely on the assumption that study participants can express their preferences consciously and explicitly. In our paper, we suggest an electroencephalography-based (EEG) approach to evaluate perceived product similarity in a cross-modal taste-visual task. We tested two potential neurometrics measured from Fz electrode: the amplitude of the N400-like evoked response potentials (ERP) and the power of induced gamma oscillations during 400–600 ms period after visual stimulus presentation. Both metrics showed a strong correlation with the perceived similarity scores at both individual and group levels; however, N400-like amplitude had greater inter-subject variability making it less suitable for practical applications. The results based on the power of induced gamma oscillations (N = 18) could be compared to traditional hall-tests (N = 200) and may potentially reveal subtle differences in food perception that can not be captured in the hall-tests.     

Nitrogen form affects yield and taste of tomatoes

Different nitrogen forms in organic or mineral fertilizers affect yield, quality and taste of tomatoes. Tomato plants were grown in a greenhouse for 10 weeks and fertilized with two different organic fertilizers (manure or grass and clover mulch) or with three different mineral nutrient solutions (NO₃^?:NH₄⁺) ratios 4:1 or 1:4). In an attempt to mimic the nutrient supply of the organic production systems, mineral fertilizers with ammonium as the dominating N‐source were combined with two chloride levels. Total nitrogen supply was 650 mg N plant^?1 week^?1 in all treatments. There was no difference in the yield of red tomatoes between the treatments (mean 1.95 kg FW plant^?1). However, the yield of green tomatoes at the final harvest was significantly higher in the mineral nutrient treatments (mean 1.37 kg FW plant^?1) compared with the organic treatments (mean 0.88 kg FW plant^?1). Plant biomass was higher for the mineral nutrient treatments (mean 1.05 kg FW plant^?1) compared with the organic treatments (0.89 kg and 0.72 kg FW plant^?1 in the manure and the grass and clover mulch treatments, respectively). Significantly higher scores were achieved for sweetness, acidity, flavour and acceptance for the tomatoes grown with the organic or the ammonium‐dominated treatments compared with the tomatoes grown with the nitrate dominated nutrient solution. It is suggested that ammonium is an equivalent nitrogen source for tomato plants compared with nitrate and that, when tomato plants are supplied with reduced nitrogen forms such as ammonium or organic nitrogen, an improved tomato fruit taste can be observed. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

甜油滋味物质及滋味特征研究

本文以生抽酱油为对照,通过常规指标分析法、十二烷基磺酸钠-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳法（SDS-PAGE）、高效液相色谱法（HPLC）并结合感官评价对甜油的常规指标、蛋白质/多肽分子量分布、氨基酸组成和感官属性特征进行了分析。结果显示:甜油中Na Cl、总糖、还原糖、无盐固形物、总酸含量分别比生抽酱油高约28%、172%、176%、120%、58%,而其氨基酸态氮含量显著低于生抽酱油（约35%）。甜油中高分子量蛋白质/多肽的比例和总含量显著高于生抽酱油。甜油中游离氨基酸以甜味氨基酸（45%）为主,其次为苦味氨基酸和鲜味氨基酸;而生抽酱油以鲜味氨基酸（57%）为主,其次为苦味氨基酸和甜味氨基酸。感官评价结果证实了甜油咸、甜突出,鲜、酸、苦诸味协调。      

Touching tastes: The haptic perception transfer of liquid food packaging materials

Based on the theory of crossmodal correspondence, which addresses transfer effects from one sense to another, and research that has explored the impact of touch on taste, the present study examined how the packaging materials of traditional Chinese cold tea drinks generated touch–taste associations. Blindfolded participants used a set of tasting attribute items to evaluate the taste of a liquid food product that differed only by the materials used to contain it, although they were led to believe that the products could differ. The results of Experiment 1 suggest that consumers’ haptic perception of packing materials significantly impacted their sense of the product’s SWEET dimension, but not the product’s SOUR or BITTER dimensions. Consumers rated a liquid food product’s sense of cold and ice (sub-dimensions of SWEET) higher when it was presented in a glass container rather than in paper or organic plastic containers. However, with the cups’ weight controlled, the results of Experiment 2 revealed that consumers’ haptic perception of packing materials only significantly impacted their sense of ice, but not their sense of cold. Consumers rated a liquid food product’s sense of ice higher when it was presented in a glass container rather than in an organic plastic container. The preliminary findings of both experiments indicate a crossmodal correspondence between the touch of food packaging materials and the taste of the food contained within them. Sensation transference provides the most likely explanation for the results. Affective ventriloquism effects provide another, but less likely, explanation. The study’s implications for choosing between packaging materials for liquid food products are discussed.