Characteristics of traditionally processed shea kernels and butter

The traditional production of shea butter requires a heat treatment of the nuts. This study compared the end products derived by two commonly used heat treatments, namely smoking and boiling followed by sun‐drying. Neither treatment influenced the moisture content of the kernels (8–10%), but the boiling treatment resulted in more free fatty acids (FFA) (6%) and a higher fat content (41%) of kernels. A sensory panel preferred shea butter from boiled kernels because of its soft texture and intense smell. This butter also had the highest values for moisture content (2%), unsaponifiable matter (7%), tocopherol compounds (125 mg g^?1), peroxide value (8 meq O₂ kg^?1), iodine value (53 mg I₂ 100 g^?1) and FFA (2%). Minor variations were noticed in the fatty acid profile. Aside from the use of butter from both boiled and smoked kernels in cosmetics, the butter from smoked kernels will be more suitable for food purposes.     

Fatty acid composition and characteristics of Pentadesma butyracea fat extracted from ghana seeds

Recent interest in the development of the tallow tree (Pentadesma butyracea S) as an oil-tree crop has stimulated agronomic and chemical studies of the tree and the fat obtained from its seeds. Tallow fat extracted from local seeds has been analysed for its chemical and physical constants and fatty acid composition. These characteristics have been compared with those of the better known cocoa butter and shea butter. Dry tallow kernels, shea butter kernels and cocoa beans contained 50, 52.1 and 53.4% fat, respectively. Tallow fat and shea butter are similar in several of their characteristics, particularly slip point, saponification number, solidification point and fatty acid composition; but tallow fat has a much lower unsaponifiable matter content (1.5–1.8%) than shea butter (7.3–9.0%). Both are markedly different from cocoa butter and cocoa butter replacement fats in respect of their melting points and fatty acid composition. Cooling curves of 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 mixtures of tallow fat and cocoa butter indicate poor compatibility between the two fats.     

Fungal metabolism of butter and shea oils by Penicillium roquefortii in solid state cultures

Monoacylglycerols (monoglycerides, MAGs) were produced from butter oil and shea stearin fraction (shea oil) by two strains of Penicillium roquefortii, FRR 2456 (isolated from a spoilt melon) and Wisbey PJ (a commercial dairy strain), at pH 7.0 at 10 and 25 °C. The system was designed as a model of cheese using modified Czapek medium in solid state cultures. Shea oil with its unique fatty acid profile (stearic, oleic and palmitic acids) was used for comparison with butter oil. Yields of MAGs, which ranged from 3 to 14 g kg^?1 oil, were higher with butter than with shea oil and higher when the spoilage strain FRR 2456 was used. Monoacylglycerols produced by mycelium‐bound lipases from both fungal strains were mainly sn‐1(3) or α isomers (60–70 mol%). Monopalmitin was the major MAG produced from both butter and shea oils. The production and use of MAGs alone or in combination with free fatty acids (FFAs) as food preservatives are discussed. It is implied that sn‐1(3) MAGs together with free fatty acids may be part of a natural antimicrobial system in relatively high‐pH foods such as blue mould‐ripened cheese where growth of foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes can be a problem. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of adding shea butter stearin and emulsifiers on the physical properties of cocoa butter

The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of shea butter stearin (SBS) as cocoa butter equivalent (CBE). In this work, the optimal ratio of SBS and cocoa butter (CB) was evaluated by the solid fat content and deviation solid fat content. Emulsifiers added to SBS and CB blends were first screened based on β polymorph level, and mixture regression experiment was designed to obtain the optimized compound emulsifiers ratio, finally the characterization of shea butter chocolate was evaluated by sensory evaluation and texture profile analysis (TPA). The best compatibility was obtained when the mixture ratio of SBS and CB was 20:80, where ΔSFC within a range of 1.5 was shown. The appropriate compound emulsifiers were soy lecithin: polyglycerol polyricinoleate: Tween 60 = 1:1:1. Both sensory evaluation and TPA test showed SBS and CB blends could improve the taste and texture of chocolate with proper emulsifiers addition.     

Effect of temperature conditions of the home environment on the physical properties of semi-solid fat products

The effect of temporary storage at room temperature (RT, 23 °C) on the physical properties and the texture of commercially available semi-solid fat products was studied. Three semi-solid fat products, namely, butter, margarine containing milk fat, and fat spread (70 % fat w/w), were maintained at RT for 2 days and then stored at 5 °C for another 2 days, and the changes in their physical properties were evaluated. The texture and sensory analyses showed that the hardness of the butter sample temporarily stored at RT increased. The storage modules (G′) at 5 °C of the butter sample that was temporarily stored at RT were higher than those of the butter stored continuously at 5 °C. Cryo-scanning electron microscopic visualization of the fat crystal network showed that film-like crystal networks linking dispersed water droplets were observed in the butter and margarine temporarily stored at RT. Meanwhile, X-ray diffraction patterns indicated that the regenerated fat crystal network comprised a polymorphic α-2 form, unlike the network in the butter not subjected to RT storage. These results suggest that the storage temperature history in the home environment can increase the hardness of semi-solid fat products containing milk fat because of the reformation of crystal networks in the milk fat triglycerides that were melted under RT.     

Mango kernel fat fractions as potential healthy food ingredients: A review

Mango kernel fat (MKF) has been reported to have high functional and nutritional potential. However, its application in food industry has not been fully explored or developed. In this review, the chemical compositions, physical properties and potential health benefits of MKF are described. MKF is a unique fat consisting of 28.9–65.0% of 1,3-distearoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol with excellent oxidative stability index (58.8–85.2 h at 110 °C), making the fat and its fractions suitable for use as high-value added food ingredients such as cocoa butter alternatives, trans-free shortenings, and a source of natural antioxidants (e.g., sterol, tocopherol and squalene). Unfortunately, the long period of dehydration of mango kernels at hot temperature results in the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols. The high levels of hydrolysates (mainly free fatty acids and diacylglycerols) limit the application of MKF in manufacturing these food ingredients. It is suggested that the physico-chemical and functional properties of MKF could be further improved through moderated refining (e.g., degumming and physical deacidification), fractionation, and interesterification.     

Effect of Cooking on Moisture Sorption Isotherms of Shea Nut (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn.) Kernels Part II: Modelling and Properties of Sorbed Water

An investigation was undertaken in this work to model the sorption isotherms of cooked and raw shea nut kernels determined by the standard static gravimetric method. The GAB, Halsey and Caurie models were validated and used in describing the sorption behaviour of the kernels. The monolayer moisture contents derived from Caurie’s equation for the desorption of cooked and raw kernels at 40, 50 and 60 °C were 5.49, 4.40 and 2.65 % and 5.22, 3.68 and 2.47 %, respectively. Monolayer moisture contents obtained from the GAB model showed a similar variation. As the temperature of sorption increased from 40 to 60 °C, the number of adsorbed monolayers (N), the surface area of adsorbent (A) and the percent bound water decreased significantly (p?<?0.05). It is suggested that the sorption process at all temperatures is multilayered. Desorption isosteric heats were lower for cooked kernels than the raw ones, while the reverse phenomenon was obtained for the adsorption process. It was established that, during storage, cooked kernels adsorbed moisture more slowly, suggesting that they could be stored for a longer period compared to the raw ones.     

A comparative study of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of three strategic edible oils

Three strategic edible oils, that is, olive oil, microalgae oil, and shea butter, with a significantly different composition of fatty acids (FA), have been studied in a static in vitro digestion model to evaluate the rate of hydrolysis, bioaccessibility, and micellar phases formed in the process. Lipid composition of each phase and how the lipids are distributed in the different phases have been obtained using this in vitro digestion model. We demonstrate that the composition in FA and the physical properties of the oil are the key factors determining the distribution of lipids in the different phases. The fastest rate of hydrolysis was observed for olive oil and the highest triacylglycerol conversion was attained for shea butter. In contrast, the most abundant precipitate phase was obtained for shea butter, which also produces the highest co-crystallization of cholesterol among the three edible oils studied. This study reveals that digestibility of edible oils is directly related with the initial rate of hydrolysis.     

Tetracycline antibiotics transfer from contaminated milk to dairy products and the effect of the skimming step and pasteurisation process on residue concentrations

The presence of antibiotics in raw milk and milk derivatives poses a threat to human health and can negatively affect the dairy industry. Therefore, the main object of this study was to investigate the transfer of oxytetracycline (OTC), tetracycline (TC), chlortetracycline (CTC) and doxycycline (DC) from raw, experimental milk contaminated with tetracyclines (TCs) to different dairy products: cream, butter, buttermilk, sour milk, whey, curd and cheese. Additionally the effect of the skimming process on TCs concentrations was tested, as well as the influence of low-temperature long-time pasteurisation. The analyses of TCs in milk and dairy products were performed by an LC-MS/MS method. In order to determine TCs residues in dairy products, an analytical method was developed with the same extraction step for all matrices. TCs molecules were inhomogenously distributed between the milk derivative fractions. The highest concentrations were determined in curd and cheese in the ranges 320–482 µg/kg and 280–561 µg/kg, respectively. Low levels of TCs in butter and whey were observed (11.8–41.2 µg/kg). TCs were found in sour milk (66.0–111 µg/kg), cream (85.0–115 µg/kg) and buttermilk (196–221 µg/kg) at much higher levels than in butter and whey, but lower than in curd and cheese. During the skimming process, the highest yield of cream was obtained after the raw milk was held at 2–8°C for 24 h. The differences in concentrations of TCs between whole milk and skimmed milk, expressed as percentages of recovery, were below 19% (recoveries in excess of 81%). The highest content was observed in milk and cream skimmed at 2–8°C. The degradation percentages for TCs during the pasteurisation process (63°C for 30 min) were below 19%.     

Evaluation of high oleic-high stearic sunflower hard stearins for cocoa butter equivalent formulation

Cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) are produced from vegetable fats by blending palm mid fraction (PMF) and tropical butters coming from shea, mango kernel or kokum fat. In this regard, high oleic-high stearic (HOHS) sunflower hard stearins from solvent fractionation can be used in CBE production since their compositions and physical properties are similar to those found in the above-mentioned tropical butters. In this work, three sunflower hard stearins (SHS) ranging from 65% to 95% of disaturated triacylglycerols and a shea stearin (used as reference) were blended with PMF to evaluate their potential use in CBEs formulation. Isosolid phase diagrams of mixtures of PMF/SHS showed eutectic formation for SHS 65 and SHS 80, but monotectic behaviour with softening effect for SHS 95. Three CBEs from SHS and shea stearin were formulated according to phase behaviour diagrams and solid fat content data at 25 °C. Isosolid phase diagrams of mixtures of these CBEs with cocoa butter showed no eutectic behaviour. Therefore, CBEs elaborated from SHS exhibited full compatibility with cocoa butter.     

Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of quince fruit pulp collected from different locations

This study was carried out to examine the physicochemical and functional characteristics of quince fruit pulp. The matured quince fruits were collected from different locations of Poonch, AJ&;K, Pakistan. Significant differences (P ? 0.05) were found among fruits collected from these locations. The quince pulp has the following characteristics: pH (3.43), total soluble solids (14.22°Brix), acidity (1.25%), carbohydrate (13.38 g/100 g), reducing sugar (5.15 g/100 g), non-reducing sugar (4.61 g/100 g), moisture (84.27 g/100 g), ash (0.62 g/100 g), fat (0.24 g/100 g), protein (0.49 g/100 g), fiber (1.65 g/100 g), ascorbic acid (15.46 mg/100 g), and total phenolic (68.13 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g) and antioxidant activity (50.05%). This exploration is the basic direction, which highlights the nutritional characteristics of quince fruit grown in AJ&;K, Pakistan.     

Characteristics of fat,and saponin and tannin contents of 11 varieties of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) seed

Rambutan seed is discarded during fruit processing. However, the seed contains a considerable amount of crude fat. Hence, the objective of this study was to determine two anti-nutritional constituents, namely saponin and tannin, and to characterize the fat of the seeds of 11 varieties of rambutan fruit. Results showed that the range of crude fat content is fairly narrow (36.13–39.13 g/100 g dried seeds). The iodine value and free fatty acid content of the fat were 38.50–50.61 g I₂/100 g fat and 0.99–2.18% as oleic acid, respectively. Oleic (33.35–46.64%) and arachidic (26.03–33.27%) acids were the main fatty acids in the fat. HPLC analysis showed that the fat comprised mainly five unknown triacylglycerols (83.94–95.33%). The melting and crystallization curves showed that the fat exhibited four to nine non-distinct peaks. The complete melting and crystallization onset temperatures of the fat were 24.8–50.6°C and 24.1–39.4°C, respectively, while the melting and crystallization enthalpies of the fat ranged from 71.2 to 141.7 J/g and from 60.4 to 88.9 J/g, respectively. At 0°C, the solid fat index of the fat ranged between 87.4% and 91.6% and the fats of some varieties melted completely at human body temperature. The saponin and tannin contents of the seed were 14.27–18.96 mg soya saponin/100 g and 4.40–26.68 mg catechin equivalent/100 g, respectively. Findings showed that rambutan seed fat has potential to be used in various sectors of food industry.     

Rapid detection of fat adulteration in bakery products using Raman and near-infrared spectroscopies

Adulteration is frequently encountered in the food industry and can be identified using currently available techniques. Infrared and Raman spectroscopic procedures are the most attractive techniques regarding fats and oils. The objective of this study was to determine the adulteration of the fat source (margarine or butter) in bakery products using Raman and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopies. Margarine and butter samples were purchased at local markets in Turkey and examined using Raman and NIR devices. A mixture (50 % margarine : 50 % butter) of fat samples was examined as well. The NIR and Raman spectral output data of all the fat samples were processed using principal component analysis (PCA). Good classification was obtained for margarine, butter and the 1:1 adulterated mixture. The chosen bakery product (cake) was produced using the same fat samples according to the method of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. Then, the fat fraction was extracted from the cakes with n-hexane. Extracted fat samples from the cakes were examined as before. PCA was applied to Raman and NIR spectral data to achieve the separation of fat sources in the cakes. PCA was also validated in each of the two stages. Significant decomposition was observed in the Raman study in contrast to the NIR study. A chemometric comparison was also applied to processed (baked) fat samples in cakes and purchased samples by PCA to assess the effects of heat treatment on sample spectra. Raman spectroscopy with multivariate analyses such as PCA can be used to detect the adulteration of the fat source in bakery products in a faster and more suitable way than the other methods.     

Characteristics of palm mid-fractions produced from different fractionation paths and their potential usages

Three palm mid-fraction (PMF) groups produced from different fractionation paths were analyzed in terms of the fat, triacylglycerol and sn-2 fatty acid compositions, thermal properties (melting and crystallization behaviors, and solid fat contents (SFCs)), micronutrient levels and oxidative stability indexes (OSIs) to achieve their sufficient utilization. PMF-A (iodine value (IV), 48.4 g/100 g) fractionated from palm olein contained 43.8% 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (POP) and 16.7% 1-palmitoyl-2,3-dioleoyl-glycerol, showing soften properties (slip melting point (SMP), 27.6°C; SFC at 30°C, 2.2%) at hot weather. PMF-B (IV, 42.3 g/100g) obtained from palm stearin showed similar fat and triacylglycerol compositions as PMF-A, but the high 1,2,3-tripalmitoyl-glycerol level (6.2%) improves its thermal behaviors (SMP, 34.9°C; SFC at 30°C, 13.8%). The SFC profiles of PMF-A and PMF-B were comparable to those found in frozen and puff margarine shortenings. Furthermore, both of the PMF groups exhibited excellent OSIs (13.2 and 11.2 h, respectively) because of their high micronutrient levels (especially γ-tocopherol and campesterol). In general, γ-tocopherol and campesterol contribute to preventing lipids from oxidation under frying conditions. Therefore, PMF-A and PMF-B are recommended for manufacturing margarine shortenings and frying fasts. PMF-C (IV, 33.0 g/100g) produced from the additional fractionation of PMF-A or PMF-B contained the highest POP percentage (67.1%) and showed heat-resistant property (SMP, 31.8°C; SFC at 30°C, 22.4%). Its steep SFC profile was superior to that of cocoa butter, suggesting the fat is preferred in producing hard chocolate fats.     

The non-glyceride saponifiables of shea butter

Triterpene alcohols and sterols were found to be present in a commercial sample of shea butter (the seed fat of Butyrospermum parkii, Sapotaceae) as esters of both cinnamic and fatty acids. These non-glyceride saponifiables represented 6% by weight of the shea butter under study, whereas free triterpene alcohols and sterols accounted for only 1 % by weight. Cinnamic acid was found neither in the free form, nor esterified to glycerol. Saponification of the non-glyceride saponifiables yielded the triterpene alcohols α-amyrin, butyrospermol, lupeol, β-amyrin and germanicol as major components. Other alcohols identified were parked, 24-methylenelanost-9(11)-en-3-ol, dammaradienol, 24-methylenedammarenol and the two sterols α-spinasterol and Δ⁷-stigmastenol. Esterified to these alcohols were cinnamic (trans and cis), palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic acids. The fatty acid composition of the non-glyceride saponifiables is different from that of the glycerides. No selectivity was observed in the esterification of these fatty acids by triterpene alcohols and sterols. Investigation of the products from acid catalysed transmethylation has led to two new experimental findings: (i) the difference in reaction rate of fatty acid and cinnamic acid esters and (ii) the formation of methoxylated artifacts from alcohols having unsaturation, in the C¹⁷ side chain, between C²⁴ and C²⁵ by the addition of methanol across the double bond. Analysis of the lipids extracted from shea kernels confirmed that the cinnamic acid esters were only present as non-glyceride saponifiables.     

Physico-chemical, Biochemical and Microbiological Properties of Traditional Polish Pork Fermented Products During Ripening

The physico-chemical and biochemical properties of the raw pork products, spontaneously fermented as entire primal cuts of ham hock (raw smoked ham hock (RSR)) and loin (raw smoked loin (RSL)), were estimated during the 4-week ripening period. A decrease in water content (4 % in RSR and 7 % in RSL) and an increase in protein (2 and 4.5 %, respectively), fat and salt content (1–2 % for both products) were associated with the phenomena of slight drying. An almost 2.5-fold increase of free amino groups dissolved in water, from 480 to 1,100 μMGly/100 g and from 490 to 1,200 μMGly/100 g, accompanied by a gradual increase of total free fatty acids, from 250 to 530 mg/kg and from 270 to 460 mg/kg, was indicated in the RSR and RSL, respectively. The fermentation and accumulation of free fatty acids affected the pH decrease in the RSL, particularly with a low fat content. The increase of tyramine, tryptamine, putrescine and spermine amounts confirm the activity of bacteria strains in the RSR and RSL during ripening. The considerable part of the “house microflora” included the species fermenting in the presence of air or in anaerobic conditions—in the presence of nitrogen. The presence of volatile cell metabolism products (3-hydroxy-2-butanone, 3-methyl-1-butanol and butanoic acid) confirmed a greater amino acid transformation and saccharide fermentation activity of microflora in the RSR. Similarly, products of free fatty acid degradation (pentanal, hexanal and butanoic acid) as well as products of lipid oxidation (e.g. 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol and 3-methyl-1-butanol) confirmed the far advanced ripening in the RSR with a greater fat content.     

Review of cocoa butter and alternative fats for use in chocolate—Part A. Compositional data

This work reviews the literature on the compositional data of vegetable fats used or proposed as alternatives to cocoa butter in chocolate and confectionery products. Cocoa butter is the only continuous phase in chocolate, thus responsible for the dispersion of all other constituents and for the physical behaviour of chocolate. Unique to cocoa butter is its brittleness at room temperature and its quick and complete melting at body temperature. There were, and are, strong efforts to replace cocoa butter in part for chocolate production for technological and economic reasons. Such cocoa butter alternatives are the so-called cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs), cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs) and cocoa butter replacers (CBRs). These are mostly mixtures of various vegetable fats (often modified) and can consist of palm and palm kernel oil, illipé fat, shea butter, sal fat and kokum butter. In addition, a large variety of other vegetable oils can be used. Their composition according to triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols and other unsaponifiable components is discussed in this report.     

Estimation of Protein in Anhydrous Milk Fat

A method for the estimation of protein in anhydrous milk fat is described. The protein concentration is estimated by quantifying the arginine and aspartic acid (ASX) released upon acid hydrolysis of the anhydrous milk fat. Arginine and aspartic acid are derivatized with the fluorescent tag 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (FMOC), the derivatives are quantified by reversed phase HPLC, and the protein concentration in the anhydrous milk fat is estimated as 8.77?×?(Arg?+?ASX). Method suitability was defined by experimental assessments of FMOC-arginine and FMOC-aspartic acid linearity (R ² averages?>?0.999), protein estimate precision [day-to-day RSD values (n?=?8 days) ranged from 7.3 to 14 % for protein concentrations of 9.42 to 40.0 mg/kg of anhydrous milk fat], protein estimate accuracy [spike recovery average?=?95.6 % (9.3 %), n?=?8, spiking level?=?20 mg/kg and agreement of the experimental protein estimate for butter, 0.611 (0.044)?g/100 g, n?=?3 lots, with a published value 0.6/100 g], and analyte selectivity (baseline resolution of FMOC-arginine and FMOC-aspartic acid from the FMOC derivatives of other common amino acids). The method provides for a reliable estimation of the protein content of anhydrous milk fat, when present at concentrations >2 mg/kg.     

Response surface optimization and characteristics of Indica rice starch‐based fat substitute prepared by α‐amylase

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to study the effect of enzyme to substrate ratio (11.8–23.6 U α‐amylase/g rice starch), hydrolysis temperature (90–100°C) and pH value (6.0–6.6) on the gel strength of rice starches‐based fat substitute using α‐amylase hydrolysis. The optimum conditions obtained from response surface analysis was 16.52 U/g enzyme dosage, 92°C hydrolysis temperature while the influence of pH was found insignificant in the range tested. Under these optimum conditions, the gel strength of this fat substitute was 113 g/cm², very close to the gel strength of butter of 114 g/cm², while the solubility of the substitute was 1.33 ± 0.01% and the swelling power 4.85 ± 0.02. There were no observable differences in the granular size distribution between the untreated rice starch and the hydrolyzed rice starch. Rheological properties of this rice starch‐based fat substitute implied that it is easier for the substitute to form three‐dimensional networks under 34°C.