Residual stress field of ballised holes

Ballising, involving pushing a slightly over-sized ball made of hard material through a hole, is a kind of cold working process. Applying ballising process to fastener holes produces compressive residual stress on the edge of the holes, and therefore increases the fatigue life of the components or structures. Quantification of the residual stress field is critical to define and precede the ballising process. In this article, the ballised holes are modeled as cold-expanded holes. Elastic-perfectly plastic theory is employed to analyze the holes with cold expansion process. For theoretical simplification, an axially symmetrical thin plate with a cold expanded hole is assumed. The elasticplastic boundaries and residual stress distribution surrounding the cold expanded hole are derived. With the analysis, the residual stress field can be obtained together with actual cold expansion process in which only the diameters of hole before and after cold expansion need to be measured. As it is a non-destructive method, it provides a convenient way to estimate the elastic-plastic boundaries and residual stresses of cold worked holes. The approach is later extended to the case involving two cold-worked holes. A ballised hole is looked upon as a cold expanded hole and therefore is investigated by the approach. Specimens ballised with different interference levels are investigated. The effects of interference levels and specimen size on residual stresses are studied. The overall residual stresses of plates with two ballised holes are obtained by superposing the residual stresses induced on a single ballised hole. The effects of distance between the centers of the two holes with different interference levels on the residual stress field are revealed.     

压缩载荷对冷胀孔残余应力的影响

用考虑组合强化、增量理论的有限元法计算了２１２４－Ｔ８５１ 板件开缝衬套冷胀孔的残余应力场及其在压缩载荷作用下的变化情况。结果表明冷胀之后的压载循环将引起冷胀残余应力的衰减。一个足够大的压缩载荷能够使冷胀工艺给疲劳寿命带来的增益完全丧失。文中说明压缩载荷对冷胀的作用可以和超载后半周压载对裂纹的作用相比拟,建议在确定合理胀孔量时应当把它对所承受的载荷谱中压缩载荷的敏感性考虑在内,应当加强有关的疲劳对比试验研究及残余应力场测量研究。     

TC4板孔冷挤压强化残余应力分布与疲劳寿命

开展了不同挤压量下TC4钛合金板孔冷挤压强化有限元仿真研究,得到了挤压强化后最小截面的切向残余应力分布规律,分析了挤压量对受载试样孔边应力分布的影响,探讨了挤压量、残余应力和疲劳增益三者之间的内在关系。采用开缝衬套冷挤压强化工艺对TC4带孔板件进行冷挤压和疲劳验证试验。研究结果表明,挤压强化后的孔边切向压缩残余应力可以有效降低孔周应力集中程度,优化受拉试样最小截面应力分布,改变裂纹源的位置并延长疲劳裂纹的萌生和扩展寿命,有效提高试样疲劳寿命。综合仿真和疲劳试验得到TC4板孔最优挤压量为4%。     

Numerical and experimental studies of the build-up and redistribution of residual stresses obtained from stress-coining

The build-up and redistribution of intentionally introduced residual strains and stresses after the coining of holes in AA6082-T6 aluminium plates has been studied numerically in a nonlinear finite element analysis. Verifying experiments have been performed. Strain gauges have been used to monitor the strains at the bore of the hole during the coining process and a part of the subsequent simulated service load. The positive effect of compressive coining residual stresses on the propagation of a through-the-thickness crack emanating from the hole is quantified by integrating Paris' law for fatigue crack growth where the entering stress intensity factors are evaluated by use of the weight function technique. The finite element method is shown to be useful for the simulation of the coining process, for the stress redistribution during subsequent service loading and for the search of combinations of coining parameters that will provide a beneficial coining process.     

FE-simulation of the effects of machining-induced residual stress profile on rolling contact of hard machined components

Compared with grinding, hard turning may induce a relatively deep compressive residual stress. However, the interactions between the residual stress profile and applied load and their effects on rolling contact stresses and strains are poorly understood, and are difficult to measure using the current experimental techniques due to the small-scale of the phenomena. A new 2-D finite element simulation model of bearing rolling contact has been developed, for the first time, to incorporate the machining-induced residual stress profile instead of only surface residual stresses. Three cases using the simulation model were assessed: (a) measured residual stress by hard turning, (b) measured residual stress by grinding, and (c) free of residual stress. It was found that distinct residual stress patterns hardly affect neither the magnitudes nor the locations of peak stresses and strains below the surface. However, they have a significant influence on surface deformations. The slope and depth of a compressive residual stress profile are key factors for rolling contact fatigue damage, which was substantiated by the available experimental data. Equivalent plastic strain could be a parameter to characterize the relative fatigue damage. The magnitudes of machining-induced residual stress are reduced in rolling contact. The predicted residual stress pattern and magnitude agree with the test data in general. In addition, rolling contact is more sensitive to normal load and residual stress pattern than tangential load.     

A fundamental investigation on rotating tool cold expansion: numerical and experimental perspectives

In this study, we present the development of a novel technique for cold expansion using a rotating tapered mandrel that friction processes the cylindrical wall of the fastener hole and simultaneously cold expands it. The developed technique, named as rotating tool cold expansion (RTCE), is experimentally and numerically investigated. A 3D thermomechanical finite element model for predicting the compressive residual stress, responsible for delaying crack propagation from the edges of the holes, is introduced. The efficacy is that RTCE is assessed for varying degrees of cold expansion under different lubricating conditions at the tool–workpiece interface, such as dry, metal working fluid, and nanopowder. The plastic deformation combined with friction stirring at the tool–workpiece interface helps the RTCE in controlling the surface damage at entry and exit of the hole that is most often observed with the conventional cold expansion technique. Enhanced friction due to the nanopowder at the tool–workpiece interface helps in sustaining efficacy of the RTCE even at a higher degree of cold expansion which otherwise leads to surface damage with other mediums.     

冷胀提高6005铝合金疲劳寿命的机理

针对冷胀对6005铝合金疲劳裂纹产生和扩展的影响,用单边预切口试样研究了含缺陷结构冷胀后的疲劳寿命,分析了不同情况下新裂纹产生的循环数;并用ANSYS软件进行了数值模拟,确定冷胀产生的残余应力场和塑性区及在不同参数下冷胀度对其的影响.结果表明:孔径和冷胀度对最大残余压应力值影响不大,都在材料屈服强度1～1.1倍的限定范围内,而冷胀度对塑性变形区和残余压应力区大小的影响则非常显著.     

Application of quenching to create highly triaxial residual stresses in type 316H stainless steels

It has been proposed that highly triaxial residual stress fields may be sufficient to promote creep damage in thermally aged components, even in the absence of in-service loads. To test this proposal, it is necessary to create test specimens containing highly triaxial residual stress fields over a significant volume of the specimen. This paper presents results from an experimental and numerical study on the generation of triaxial residual stresses in stainless steel test specimens. Spray water quenching was used to generate residual stress fields in solid cylinders and spheres made from type 316H stainless steel. A series of finite element simulations and measurements were carried out to determine how process conditions and specimen dimensions influenced the resulting residual stress distributions. The results showed that highly compressive residual stresses occurred around the surfaces of the cylinders and spheres and tensile residual stresses occurred near the centre. Surface residual stresses were measured using the incremental centre hole-drilling technique, while internal residual stresses were measured using neutron diffraction. Overall there was good agreement between the predicted and measured residual stresses. The level of triaxiality was found to be very sensitive to the heat transfer coefficient, and could be controlled by adjusting the cooling conditions and changing the dimensions of the steel samples. This differed from other processes, such as welding and shot-peening, where the magnitudes and distributions of residual stresses are ill-defined and the volume of material subjected to a triaxial residual stress state is relatively small.     

In Situ Observation of Wax-in-Oil Flow in Rough Soft Contact

The paper presents the results of experimental study into the microstructure and changes in residual stresses resulting from sliding and rolling/sliding loaded interaction between metallic surface coatings with embedded PTFE reservoirs and various counter faces. It was found that before testing surface coatings had compressive residual stresses. Molybdenum coating with all types of PTFE reservoirs displayed, as a result of testing, decrease in residual stress level unevenly distributed within the contact path. On the other hand, aluminum–bronze coating, regardless the shape of PTFE reservoirs embedded into it, did not show any appreciable change in the residual stress level due to testing. Residual stresses generated under testing conditions in counter materials were typically of the compressive nature.     

喷丸强化残余应力对疲劳性能和变形控制影响研究进展

作为机械表面强化技术之一,喷丸强化使工件表层发生形变硬化,引入较高的残余压应力,减少了疲劳应力作用下微裂纹的萌生并抑制其扩展,从而显著提高零件的抗疲劳断裂和抗应力腐蚀开裂的能力。基于喷丸残余应力解析计算模型,从余弦函数模型、接触应力模型和球腔膨胀模型三个方面介绍喷丸强化残余应力的产生,进而对喷丸残余应力的仿真预测及影响规律进行论述。为了提高试件疲劳强度而引入的残余压应力会带来影响形位精度的变形,基于此阐述了喷丸残余应力对疲劳性能的影响及其在疲劳过程中的演化,同时论述了喷丸残余应力变形预测及控制的研究现状,最后对喷丸残余应力未来的研究内容与发展方向进行展望。     

Finite Element Modeling of the Technology of Multiple Laser Shock Processing of Materials Using the Eigenstrain Method

The laser shock processing (LSP) of material is an efficient modern technology of processing of metal materials, during which significant compressive residual stresses contributing to an increase in their strength and tribological and operational characteristics are generated in the subsurface area. The finite element modeling of the technology of multiple laser shock processing is carried out using the eigenstrain method. The level of the compressive residual stresses arising under LSP is determined. It is shown that the residual stresses on the surface of the VT-6 alloy grow from 510 to 830MPa with an increase in the number of pulses from 1 to 4, and the depth of the zone of the compressive residual stresses increases respectively from 1.26 mm after the first pulse to 1.60 mm after the fourth pulse.     

Effect of side holes in cervical fusion cages: a finite element analysis study

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of side holes on the predicted von Mises stress levels in cervical spinal fusion cages subjected to compressive loading. Models with between zero and ten side holes were developed. Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to simulate compression of the cage, made from the polymer PEEK (polyetheretherketone), between two adjacent vertebrae. The analyses were validated by experimental tests. In all of the models, the von Mises stress was highest at the cage-vertebrae interface with peak stresses of between 14 and 18 MPa. Increasing the Young's modulus of the vertebrae from 12 to 30 GPa increased the peak stress on average by 29 per cent. The stresses in the models were lower than the compressive strength of PEEK (118 MPa), and are well within the PEEK fatigue strength reported (60 MPa at 10 million cycles). This study suggests that the number of side holes had a negligible effect on the stress distribution within the cage; the stress magnitudes were fairly constant across all of the models and did not change substantially with the number of holes. Hence, a cervical cage with side holes is unlikely to fail in compression.     

Prediction of fatigue life in cold expanded Al-alloy 2024-T3 plates used in double shear lap joints

To predict fatigue crack initiation and fatigue crack growth lives in cold expanded double shear lap joints a numerical method has been employed. The total estimated fatigue lives were compared with available experimental fatigue test results for plain hole and cold expanded hole specimens of Al 2024-T3 in double shear lap joints. Three-dimensional finite element simulations have been performed in order to obtain the created residual stresses field due to cold expansion and subsequent far field longitudinal loading in the double shear lap joint. The obtained stress and strain distributions from the finite element analyses were employed to predict stress concentration factors to calculate fatigue crack initiation and fatigue crack growth lives using AFGROW computer code. The predicted fatigue lives demonstrate that there is a good agreement between the proposed method and experimental fatigue test results.     

功能梯度Al2O3涂层残余热应力分析

Al2O3/316L功能梯度材料是一种聚变反应堆第一壁的候选材料。为避免制备过程中因材料之间热物理性能差别产生的热应力过大造成材料的失效,须对梯度材料进行合理的热应力缓和设计。运用有限元软件,分析成分分布指数、梯度涂层厚度和梯度层数目等参数对Al2O3/316L功能梯度材料残余热应力的影响。分析结果表明：体积分布指数p=1.0时所受热应力最小,涂层承受压应力作用;梯度层数为9时热应力缓和效果最好;梯度层厚度不宜过大;将非功能梯度材料与优化后的功能梯度材料的残余热应力进行比,结果显示：功能梯度材料缓和热应力效果十分显著。最后利用等离子喷涂方法制备了梯度涂层测试涂层残余应力,并与有限元结果进行对比,以验证模拟的准确性。     

Contact stresses in the glenoid component in total shoulder arthroplasty

Several studies of retrieved glenoid components from total shoulder arthroplasty show an erosion of the rim, surface irregularities, component fracture and wear resulting from polyethylene deformation in vivo. Particles resulting from polyethylene wear might be one of the reasons for the very high rate of glenoid component loosening found clinically. Because wear can be the result of high contact stresses, the aim of this study is to find out whether or not contact stresses are high enough to cause wear of the glenoid component and what influence the component type and geometry have on polyethylene contact stresses for different humerus abduction angles. Elasticity theory is used in a parametric study of contact stresses in several glenoid component designs. A finite element method is used to confirm the accuracy of the analytical solution. The analysis shows that the peak stress generated in glenoid components under conditions of normal living can be as high as 25 MPa; since this exceeds the polyethylene yield strength, wear and also cold flow of the components can be expected. It is predicted that more conforming components have lower contact stresses, which might result in lower wear rate and less cold flow. It is also found that a metal-backed component promotes higher contact stresses than an all-polyethylene component with the same total thickness, therefore it can be expected that metal-backed components have inferior wear properties.     

喷丸残余应力场有限元模拟研究进展

喷丸强化处理工艺可以显著提高金属材料的抗疲劳和抗应力腐蚀等性能,这与喷丸后在金属表面层形成的残余应力场紧密相关,因此对喷丸残余应力的大小及分布进行预测具有重要意义.对近年国内外喷丸残余应力场的有限元模拟进行评述,总结出6种典型的残余应力分析模型,分别是二维轴对称模型、四对称面模型、三对称面模型、双对称面模型、单对称面模...     

Finite element analysis of the effect of sequential cuts and tool–chip friction on residual stresses in a machined layer

A thermo-elastic–viscoplastic model using explicit finite element code Abaqus was developed to investigate the effect of sequential cuts and tool–chip friction on residual stresses in a machined layer. Chip formation, cutting forces and temperature were also examined in the sequential cuts. The affected layer from the first cut slightly changes the chip thickness, cutting forces, residual strain and temperature of the machined layer, but significantly affects the residual stress distribution produced by the second cut. Residual stress is sensitive to friction condition of the tool–chip interface. Simulation results offer an insight into residual stresses induced in sequential cuts. Based on simulation results, characteristics of residual stress distribution can be controlled by optimizing the second cut.     

孔挤压强化和工艺参数研究

孔挤压强化可以显著提高机械连接的疲劳强度。采用有限元方法建立了孔挤压强化轴对称模型,得到了孔壁残余应力分布状态,建立了孔壁残余应力和孔径、板件厚度、挤压强化过盈量等工艺参数之间的关系曲线。结果表明,周向残余应力和孔径、挤压强化过盈量之间为对数关系,和板件厚度之间为线性关系;径向残余应力和孔径、挤压强化过盈量之间为对数关系,和板厚(以2.5mm为分界线)之间为线性关系,为孔挤压强化效果的定量化认识奠定了基础。     

汽轮机套装叶轮的应力分析和过盈量的合理设计

本文应用作者提出的求解接触问题的有限元混合变量法对汽轮机套装叶轮进行了分析,提出了合理设计叶轮和轴之间过盈量的两种方案,表明接触问题的有限元法对套装叶轮的应力分析和改进设计有重要意义。     

Residual stresses in friction stir welded parts of complex geometry

Residual stresses play a key role on the mechanics underlying the fatigue crack growth propagation of welded joints. Indeed, compressive residual stresses may induce a beneficial enhancement of the fatigue life under loading condition whereas tensile residual stresses may act to increase the stress distribution at crack tip, resulting in a life-threatening condition of the welded structure. In-process distortion and final geometry of welded joints are also affected by residual stresses. In this paper, the longitudinal residual stress distributions in friction stir welding (FSW) joints were investigated for butt and skin–stringer geometries, including lap and T configurations. To measure residual stresses, the cut-compliance and the inverse weight-function methodologies were adapted for skin–stringer FSW geometries via finite element analysis. AA2024-T4 and AA7075-T6 aluminum alloys were used to weld dissimilar skin–stringer joints whereas butt joints were made of AA2024. The effect of most relevant process parameters as well as the cooling during welding process was also investigated for a better understanding of welding residual stresses. Our findings suggest that FSW of complex skin–stringer geometries produces higher residual stresses than those of butt joints, and that the cooling water flux further reduces residual stresses. Changes of process parameters did not affect markedly residual stress distribution.