Accelerated Development and Toxin Tolerance of the Navel Orangeworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amyelois transitella</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the Presence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus flavus</Emphasis>

The navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) and the fungus Aspergillus flavus constitute a facultative mutualism and pest complex in tree nut and fruit orchards in California. The possibility exists that the broad detoxification capabilities of A. flavus benefit its insect associate by metabolizing toxicants, including hostplant phytochemicals and pesticides. We examined this hypothesis by conducting laboratory bioassays to assess growth rates and survivorship of pyrethroid-resistant (R347) and susceptible (CPQ) larval strains on potato dextrose agar diet containing almond meal with and without two furanocoumarins, xanthotoxin and bergapten, found in several hostplants, and with and without two insecticides, bifenthrin and spinetoram, used in almond and pistachio orchards. Additionally, fungi were incubated in liquid diets containing the test chemicals, and extracts of these diets were added to almond potato dextrose agar (PDA) diets and fed to larvae to evaluate the ability of the fungus to metabolize these chemicals. Larvae consuming furanocoumarin-containing diet experienced higher mortality than individuals on unamended diets, but adding A. flavus resulted in up to 61.7% greater survival. Aspergillus flavus in the diet increased development rate?>?two-fold when furanocoumarins were present, demonstrating fungal enhancement of diet quality. Adding extracts of liquid diets containing xanthotoxin and fungus decreased mortality compared to xanthotoxin alone. On diets containing bifenthrin and spinetoram, however, mortality increased. These results support the hypothesis that A. flavus enhances navel orangeworm performance and contributes to detoxification of xenobiotics. Among practical implications of our findings, this mutualistic association should be considered in designing chemical management strategies for these pests.     

Novel Ester-linked Anionic Gemini Surfactant: Synthesis,Surface-Active Properties and Antimicrobial Study

A novel anionic gemini surfactant containing an ester bond in the spacer group was synthesized using cardanol as the raw material and characterized by IR, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR. The surface properties of the gemini surfactant were investigated and compared with its corresponding single chain surfactant counterpart. It was found that this novel gemini surfactant exhibited a low critical micelle concentration value (1.9 mM) and good efficiency in reducing surface tension of water (33.6 mN/m). The gemini surfactant was found to have antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria and fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans and Rhizopus stolonifer). The gemini as well as the corresponding single chain surfactant showed good antimicrobial activity against all pathogenic microorganisms studied and can be employed as an antimicrobial agent. The synthesized novel anionic gemini surfactant possesses an excellent wettability and low foamability.     

Naphthoquinone Metabolites Produced by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monacrosporium ambrosium</Emphasis>, the Ectosymbiotic Fungus of Tea Shot-Hole Borer, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Euwallacea fornicatus,</Emphasis> in Stems of Tea, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Camellia sinensis</Emphasis>

The tea shot-hole borer beetle (TSHB, Euwallacea fornicatus) causes serious damage in plantations of tea, Camellia sinensis var. assamica, in Sri Lanka and South India. TSHB is found in symbiotic association with the ambrosia fungus, Monacrosporium ambrosium (syn. Fusarium ambrosium), in galleries located within stems of tea bushes. M. ambrosium is known to be the sole food source of TSHB. Six naphthoquinones produced during spore germination in a laboratory culture broth of M. ambrosium were isolated and identified as dihydroanhydrojavanicin, anhydrojavanicin, javanicin, 5,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl-3-(2-oxopropyl)naphthalene-1,4-dione, anhydrofusarubin and solaniol. Chloroform extracts of tea stems with red-colored galleries occupied by TSHB contained UV active compounds similar to the above naphthoquinones. Laboratory assays demonstrated that the combined ethyl acetate extracts of the fungal culture broth and mycelium inhibited the growth of endophytic fungi Pestalotiopsis camelliae and Phoma multirostrata, which were also isolated from tea stems. Thus, pigmented naphthoquinones secreted by M. ambrosium during spore germination may prevent other fungi from invading TSHB galleries in tea stems. The antifungal nature of the naphthoquinone extract suggests that it protects the habitat of TSHB. We propose that the TSHB fungal ectosymbiont M. ambrosium provides not only the food and sterol skeleton necessary for the development of the beetle during its larval stages, but also serves as a producer of fungal inhibitors that help to preserve the purity of the fungal garden of TSHB.     

Synthesis of Microcrystalline Wollastonite Bioceramics and Evolution of Bioactivity

Alpha and beta wollastonite can serve as alternative low-cost bioceramics for bone repair and drug delivery. However, it has been challenging to develop energy-saving, facile and rapid synthetic methodologies for bioactive wollastonite phases. The aim of this work was the rapid preparation and characterization of bioactive α- and β-wollastonite powders by a coprecipitation method and their in-vitro bioactivity evaluation in the SBF solution. The results revealed that heating of the reactant solution at 100 ^°C for 2 h before sintering induced rapid formation of pure α- and β-wollastonite powders with agglomerated particles size in the range 2–7 μm. In-vitro bioactivity testing showed that the prepared α- and β-Wollastonite powders exhibit excellent bioactivity performance. Therefore, this method is promising for preparing bioactive wollastonite structures for medical applications such as bone substitutes and drug carriers.     

Engelmann Spruce Chemotypes in Colorado and their Effects on Symbiotic Fungi Associated with the North American Spruce Beetle

Conifer secondary metabolites play a key role in mechanisms of resistance to biotic disturbance, especially by bark beetles and beetle-associated microorganisms. Here, we describe variation in constitutive monoterpenes isolated from Engelmann spruce, Picea engelmannii, phloem across fourteen high-elevation populations in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and test interactions between phloem monoterpenes and an endophloedic symbiotic fungus, Leptographium abietinum, associated with the North American spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis. We consistently identified ten monoterpenes in Engelmann spruce phloem, and the trees in our samples could be classified into two geographically interspersed chemical phenotypes, or ‘chemotypes’: one in which α- and β-pinene were the most abundant monoterpenes, and one in which 3-carene was the most abundant monoterpene. Media amended with low concentrations of α-pinene, β-pinene, 3-carene, myrcene, and terpinolene stimulated growth of L. abietinum. Increasing monoterpene concentrations uniformly retarded fungal growth. Linalool completely suppressed fungal growth at all concentrations, while terpinolene completely suppressed growth at low and intermediate concentrations, indicating relatively high toxicity of these compounds. Tests with monoterpene blends representing the ‘average’ monoterpene composition of each chemotype indicated that representative chemotypes are equivalent in fungistatic activity, with chemotype blends being inhibitory even at low concentrations. Total constitutive monoterpene abundances in Engelmann spruce phloem ranged from 42 to 1796 μg/g. Induction of Engelmann spruce phloem monoterpenes in response to L. abietinum or other biotic agents has yet to be quantified, but is important for further understanding Engelmann spruce resistance to the D. rufipennis-L. abietinum complex.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>-10,<Emphasis Type="Italic">cis</Emphasis>-12 Conjugated Linoleic Acid Enhances Endurance Capacity by Increasing Fatty Acid Oxidation and Reducing Glycogen Utilization in Mice

The supplementation of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been shown to improve endurance by enhancing fat oxidation during exercise in rodents and humans. This study was designed to investigate the isomer-specific effects of CLA on endurance capacity and energy metabolism in mice during exercise. Male 129Sv/J mice were divided into three dietary groups and fed treatment diet for 6 weeks; control, 0.5 % cis-9,trans-11 (c9,t11) CLA, or 0.5 % trans-10,cis-12 (t10,c12) CLA. Dietary t10,c12 CLA induced a significant increase in maximum running time and distance until exhaustion with a dramatic reduction of total adipose depots compared to a control group, but there were no significant changes in endurance with the c9,t11 CLA treatment. Serum triacylglycerol and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations were significantly lower in the t10,c12 fed mice after exercise compared to control and the c9,t11 CLA fed-animals. Glycogen contents in livers of the t10,c12 fed-mice were higher than those in control mice, concomitant with reduction of serum l-lactate level. There were no differences in non-exercise physical activity among all treatment groups. In addition, the mRNA expression levels of carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1β, uncoupling protein 2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) in skeletal muscle during exercise were significantly up-regulated by the t10,c12 CLA but not the c9,t11 CLA. These results suggest that the t10,c12 CLA is responsible for improving endurance exercise capacity by promoting fat oxidation with a reduction of the consumption of stored liver glycogen, potentially mediated via PPARδ dependent mechanisms.     

Maxima of the Specific Heat at Constant Pressure of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>-Alkanes C<Subscript>7</Subscript>-C<Subscript>9</Subscript> in the Supercritical Region

Precision measurements of the specific heat at constant pressure, C _p , of high-purity samples of the normal alkanes C₇-C₉ in the supercritical region of state parameters are carried out using an adiabatic flow calorimeter equipped with a calorimetric flowmeter. Currently, this is the most accurate method. The coordinates of maxima of C _p on isobars are determined. A generalized equation for the line of the maxima of C _p in reduced coordinates π-τ and an equation for C _p along this line in corresponding states for the homologous series are obtained in terms of thermodynamic similarity theory using the most reliable published data. Existing experimental methods for determining the critical parameters of individual substances are analyzed.     

Different Responses of an Invasive Clonal Plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wedelia trilobata</Emphasis> and its Native Congener to Gibberellin: Implications for Biological Invasion

The invasive clonal plant Wedelia trilobata contains higher levels of ent-kaurane diterpenes, which are precursors of gibberellins (GAs), and higher rates of clonal growth than its native congener W. chinensis in invaded habitats. We hypothesized that the higher levels of endogenous GAs facilitate greater ramet growth in W. trilobata compared with W. chinensis. We quantified endogenous levels of GA₁₊₃ in the two species and compared their growth responses to the changes of endogenous and exogenous GA₃ by using short-term and long-term hydroponics experiments. After a period of homogeneous cultivation, levels of endogenous GA₁₊₃ were higher in W. trilobata than in W. chinensis. The reduction of endogenous GAs repressed the emergence of adventitious roots and the growth of W. trilobata in the initial cultivation stage, and inhibited its shoot elongation and biomass. Levels of endogenous GA₁₊₃ were positively correlated with the length of shoots and adventitious roots of W. trilobata. Adventitious roots of W. trilobata also emerged earlier and grew faster when treated with exogenous GA₃. In contrast, exogenous GA₃ treatment inhibited the length of adventitious roots in W. chinensis, and levels of endogenous GA₁₊₃ did not correlate with shoot or adventitious root length. Our study suggests that GAs accelerate the rapid clonal growth of W. trilobata, more than that of its native congener W. chinensis, illustrating the relationship between plant hormones and the clonal growth of invasive plants. These findings are important for understanding the mechanisms associated with the invasiveness of clonal plants and their potential management.     

Synthesis of MgAPO-31 nanocrystals via different heating methods and their catalytic performance in the hydroisomerization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>-decane

MgAPO-31 molecular sieves substituted by different magnesium contents were synthesized using microwave irradiation (MW) and conventional electrical heating method, respectively. The bifunctional catalysts Pd/MgAPO-31 were prepared by the incipient wetness impregnation technique. The structure and acidity of MgAPO-31 were characterized by XRD, SEM, N₂ physical adsorption, FT-IR, and Py-IR. The catalytic performance of Pd/MgAPO-31 were tested in the hydroisomerization of n-decane, which was used as the probe-reaction, and the effect of heating method on acidity of MgAPO-31 and the catalytic performance of Pd/MgAPO-31 were investigated. The results showed that all of the MgAPO-31 samples with ATO topology structure were pure phase and high crystalline materials. The Mg(II) heteroatoms were confirmed to isomorphously substitute for the framework atoms of AlPO₄-31 molecular sieve. These Pd/MgAPO-31catalysts showed good catalytic performance for the hydroisomerization in the temperature range of 330–370 °C. The activity of Pd/MgAPO-31 in the hydroisomerization of n-decane and the selectivity for i-decanes were considered to depend on the crystal size and acidity of MgAPO-31.The highest selectivity for i-decanes was obtained over the catalyst Pd/0.05MgA31-MW prepared using the MW method.     

Development of Cre-<Emphasis Type="Italic">lox</Emphasis> based multiple knockout system in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Deinococcus radiodurans</Emphasis> R1

The extremophilic bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans R1 has been considered as an attractive microorganism due to its remarkable tolerance to various external stresses. Considering the nature of D. radiodurans R1, it has potential as a platform microorganism for industrial applications, including biorefinery and bioremediation process. However, D. radiodurans R1 is well known for its hard genetic manipulation. Thus, much effort has been made to develop efficient genetic engineering tools for making D. radiodurans R1 suitable for industrial platform microorganism. Although a plasmid-based single gene knockout method has been reported, development of multiple gene knockout system has not yet been reported. Here we report, for the first time, Cre-lox based rapid and efficient multiple knockout method for metabolic engineering of D. radiodurans R1. Also, deletion of dr0053 gene was successfully achieved within seven days to make biofilm overproducing strain.     

The Effects of Milkweed Induced Defense on Parasite Resistance in Monarch Butterflies, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Danaus plexippus</Emphasis>

Many plants express induced defenses against herbivores through increasing the production of toxic secondary chemicals following damage. Phytochemical induction can directly or indirectly affect other organisms within the community. In tri-trophic systems, increased concentrations of plant toxins could be detrimental to plants if herbivores can sequester these toxins as protective chemicals for themselves. Thus, through trophic interactions, induction can lead to either positive or negative effects on plant fitness. We examined the effects of milkweed (Asclepias spp.) induced defenses on the resistance of monarch caterpillars (Danaus plexippus) to a protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha). Milkweeds contain toxic secondary chemicals called cardenolides, higher concentrations of which are associated with reduced parasite growth. Previous work showed that declines in foliar cardenolides caused by aphid attack render monarch caterpillars more susceptible to infection. Here, we ask whether cardenolide induction by monarchs increases monarch resistance to disease. We subjected the high-cardenolide milkweed A. curassavica and the low-cardenolide A. syriaca to caterpillar grazing, and reared infected and uninfected caterpillars on these plants. As expected, monarchs suffered less parasite growth and disease when reared on A. curassavica than on A. syriaca. We also found that herbivory increased cardenolide concentrations in A. curassavica, but not A. syriaca. However, cardenolide induction in A. curassavica was insufficient to influence monarch resistance to the parasite. Our results suggest that interspecific variation in cardenolide concentration is a more important driver of parasite defense than plasticity via induced defenses in this tri-trophic system.     

Comparison of optimal and model cascades for the separation of multicomponent mixtures at arbitrary stage enrichments

A method in which the model-matched abundance ratio (R) cascade to be designed at given concentrations of the target component in the product and waste streams is optimized using the parameter M*, defined as the half-sum of the values of the mass numbers of the target and reference components, is proposed. The comparison between the overall characteristics of the R cascade optimized using the parameter M* and minimal-total-flow cascade shows that they are close to each other. The conclusion that the parameters of the optimized R cascade for separating multicomponent isotope mixtures are reasonable to use as the initial approximation in determining the optimal parameters of multistage separation cascades with a given concentration of the lightest or heaviest target component in output streams is made     

Sol–gel transition characterization of thermosensitive hydrogels based on water mobility variation provided by low field NMR

Sol–gel transition properties play a key role in various applications of thermosensitive hydrogels, but conventional methods for studying the sol–gel transition have some limitations. For extensive characterization of the water–polymer interaction and microstructure change during sol–gel transition, we propose a rapid and nondestructive method based on monitoring water mobility through low field NMR (LF-NMR), and this was applied to chitosan/β-glycerophosphate (CS/GP) hydrogels. The spin–spin relaxation time (T ₂) that depicted water mobility was measured by LF-NMR within 90 s. The T ₂ component corresponding to water protons trapped in polymer networks (T ₂₁ ) was very sensitive to sol–gel transition. A remarkable decrease of T ₂₁ value indicated obvious variations of water mobility when CS/GP was heated, and a turning point was observed on the T ₂₁–time curve. The gel point associated with this turning point could be easily determined by fitting the T ₂₁–time curves to a bilinear regression model, and the results showed good accuracy and repeatability owing to the nondestructive nature of LF-NMR. Variations in water components and microstructure of CS/GP caused by water migration after solidification were also analyzed by monitoring dynamic changes of T ₂. This rapid, nondestructive method provides a powerful tool for studying the sol–gel transition of hydrogels.     

Fungal Competitors Affect Production of Antimicrobial Lipopeptides in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus subtilis</Emphasis> Strain B9–5

Bacillus subtilis has shown success in antagonizing plant pathogens where strains of the bacterium produce antimicrobial cyclic lipopeptides (CLPs) in response to microbial competitors in their ecological niche. To gain insight into the inhibitory role of these CLPs, B. subtilis strain B9–5 was co-cultured with three pathogenic fungi. Inhibition of mycelial growth and spore germination was assessed and CLPs produced by B. subtilis B9–5 were quantified over the entire period of microbial interaction. B. subtilis B9–5 significantly inhibited mycelial growth and spore germination of Fusarium sambucinum and Verticillium dahliae, but not Rhizopus stolonifer. LC-MS analysis revealed that B. subtilis differentially produced fengycin and surfactin homologs depending on the competitor. CLP quantification suggested that the presence of Verticillium dahliae, a fungus highly sensitive to the compounds, caused an increase followed by a decrease in CLP production by the bacterium. In co-cultures with Fusarium sambucinum, a moderately sensitive fungus, CLP production increased more gradually, possibly because of its slower rate of spore germination. With co-cultures of the tolerant fungus Rhizopus stolonifer, B. subtilis produced high amounts of CLPs (per bacterial cell) for the duration of the interaction. Variations in CLP production could be explained, in part, by the pathogens’ overall sensitivities to the bacterial lipopeptides and/or the relative growth rates between the plant pathogen and B. subtilis. CLP production varied substantially temporally depending on the targeted fungus, which provides valuable insight concerning the effectiveness of B. subtilis B9–5 protecting its ecological niche against the ingress of these pathogens.     

Kinetics of growth on dual substrates,production of novel glutaminase-free L-asparaginase and substrates utilization by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pectobacterium carotovorum</Emphasis> MTCC 1428 in a batch bioreactor

Bacterial L-asparaginase has been widely used as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of various lymphoblastic leukemia diseases. We studied product and dual substrates utilization kinetics by P. carotovorum MTCC 1428 in batch bioreactor. The kinetic study revealed that the maximum growth of P. carotovorum MTCC 1428 was achieved at 2 g l ^?1 and 5 g l ^?1 of glucose and L-asparagine, respectively. Different substrate inhibition models were fitted to the growth kinetic data and the additive form of double Luong model was found to best explain the growth kinetics of P. carotovorum MTCC 1428. The kinetic parameters of growth studies showed that the predicted maximum inhibition concentration of glucose (S _mg ) and L-asparagine (S _ma ) was close to the experimentally observed value 15.0 and 10 g l ^?1, respectively. Modified form of the Luedeking-Piret model was used to describe the kinetics of L-asparaginase production, and the system seems to be mixed growth associated. Kinetic models of dual substrate growth, L-asparaginase production and substrate(s) utilization by P. carotovorum MTCC 1428 well fitted with experimental data with regression coefficients (R²) value of 0.97, 0.96 and 0.93, respectively.     

Attractiveness of Host Plant Volatile Extracts to the Asian Citrus Psyllid, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri,</Emphasis> is Reduced by Terpenoids from the Non-Host Cashew

Diaphorina citri is a vector of the bacterial causative agent of Huanglongbing (HLB?=?Citrus greening), a severe disease affecting citrus crops. As there is no known control for HLB, manipulating insect behaviour through deployment of semiochemicals offers a promising opportunity for protecting citrus crops. The behavioural responses of D. citri to plant volatiles, and the identity of these plant volatiles were investigated. Volatiles were collected from host plants Murraya paniculata, Citrus sinensis, C. reshni, C. limettioides, Poncirus trifoliata, and from non-host plants Psidium guajava, Mangifera indica, Anacardium occidentale. In behavioural assays, female D. citri spent more time in the arms containing volatiles from either M. paniculata or C. sinensis compared to the control arms. When D. citri was exposed to volatiles collected from A. occidentale, they preferred the control arm. Volatiles emitted from the other studied plants did not influence the foraging behaviour of D. citri. Chemical analyses of volatile extracts from C. sinensis, M. paniculata, and A. occidentale revealed the presence of the terpenoids (E)-4,8-dimethylnona-1,3,7–triene (DMNT) and (E,E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene (TMTT) in higher amounts in A. occidentale. In further behavioural bioassays, female D. citri spent less time in arms containing a synthetic blend of DMNT and TMTT compared to the control arms. Female D. citri also spent less time in arms containing the synthetic blend in combination with volatile extracts from either M. paniculata or C. sinensis compared to the control arms. Results suggest that higher release of the two terpenoids by A. occidentale make this species unattractive to D. citri, and that the terpenoids could be used in reducing colonisation of citrus plants and therefore HLB infection.     

Construction of methanol sensing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> by the introduction of novel chimeric MxcQZ/OmpR two-component system from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Methylobacterium organophilum</Emphasis> XX

Methylobacterium organophilum XX is a type II facultative methylotroph that can grow on methanol. In M. organophilum XX, the MxcQ/MxcE two-component system (TCS) is involved in methanol metabolism. EnvZ/OmpR in E. coli TCS was exploited to develop a methanol biosensor by engaging the MxcQ/MxcE TCS system. The MxcQZ/OmpR methanol sensing chimeric TCS was constructed by integrating the sensing domain of M. organophilum MxcQ with the transmitter domain of E. coli EnvZ. The response regulator of the chimeric TCS system is OmpR, which regulates the expression of the ompC and gfp. The expression of ompC was monitored by real-time quantitative PCR analysis. The expression of gfp also confirmed the expression of the ompC. The maximum expression of ompC and gfp occurred with 0.05% of methanol, and the expression started to decline with further increases in methanol concentration. This system delivers rapid detection of methanol in the environment.     

Modifying the Alkylglucosinolate Profile in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis> Alters the Tritrophic Interaction with the Herbivore <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brevicoryne brassicae</Emphasis> and Parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaeretiella rapae</Emphasis>

Arabidopsis thaliana was used as an experimental model plant to investigate a tritrophic interaction between the plant, a specialist aphid herbivore, Brevicoryne brassicae, and its natural enemy, the parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae. The A. thaliana ecotype Col-5 was transformed with a functional 2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenase (BniGSL-ALK) that converts 3-methylsulfinylpropylglucosinolate and 4-methylsulfinylbutylglucosinolate to 2-propenylglucosinolate and 3-butenylglucosinolate, respectively. This transformation results in a change in the glucosinolate hydrolysis profile where 3-butenylisothiocyanate, 2-propenylisothiocyanate and 5-vinyloxazolidine-2-thione are produced in contrast to the wild-type plant where 4-methylsulfinylbutylisothiocyanate is the main product. Performance of B. brassicae was affected negatively by transforming Col-5 with BniGSL-ALK in terms of mean relative growth rates. In a series of behavioral bioassays, naïve D. rapae females were able to discriminate between B. brassicae infested and uninfested Col-5 plants transformed with BniGSL-ALK, with parasitoids showing a preference for B. brassicae infested plants. By contrast, naïve D. rapae females were unable to discriminate between aphid infested and uninfested Col-5 plants. Subsequent air entrainments of B. brassicae infested Col-5 plants transformed with BniGSL-ALK further confirmed the presence of 3-butenylisothiocyanate in the headspace. By contrast, no glucosinolate hydrolysis products were recorded from similarly infested Col-5 plants.     

Development of nano-channel single crystals and verification of their structures by small angle X-ray scattering

Nano-channel single crystals were developed via consecutive growth of various polymer single-crystal channels comprising homo and block copolymers by self-seeding method. Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-polystyrene (PEG-b-PS) and poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PEG-b-PMMA) block copolymers were synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization. Self-seeding temperature, concentration, and crystallization time affected the width of the channels. This might provide a new way to investigate directional absorption, diffusion, and immobilization of biomacromolecules on the surface. The crystalline blocks of PEG-b-PS and PEG-b-PMMA diblock copolymers were similar, therefore, the continuity of channel-wire growth was guaranteed. Development of complete square channels next to the channels covered with high molecular weight brushes was infeasible. It was ascribed to a higher hindrance of primarily existing tethered chains on the single-crystal channel. Finally, the consecutive channel-wire single crystals were compared with single-step-grown pyramidal and conic structures. These multilayer crystals grew spirally and formed non-flat channels. The structure and morphology of different crystalline channels were detected by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). In this work, for the first time, the SAXS data of channel-wire single crystals were reported and they were compared by non-flat channel-like crystals. A profound investigation of PEG-b-PS, PEG-b-PMMA copolymers and PEG homopolymer channel-wire single crystals by SAXS and their comparison with AFM data was a novel work in the field of single-crystal engineering.