Color preference affected by mode of color appearance

Most color preference research focuses on colors in an object color mode. In our daily life, however, colors are perceived not only as an object color mode but also as other modes, such as unnatural object color and light source color modes. To explore the effect of the color appearance mode on color preference, we examined the relationship between color preference and the mode of color appearance. Thirty‐three color chips were chosen from the Munsell notation varying in hues and chromas. The color chips were presented in different color appearance modes by changing the subject's room illuminance and the color chip room illuminance. The experimental results showed that the brightest and most saturated colors were preferred. It was found that the subject preferred color in a light source color mode and unnatural object color mode to color in an object color mode. Moreover, we found that hue had a small effect on color preference in the light source color mode. We also investigated the relationship between color preference and the perceived color attributes (perceived chromaticness, whiteness, and blackness). In a supplementary experiment, elementary color naming was conducted. The results showed that the perceived chromaticness, perceived whiteness, and perceived blackness play a role for the determination of color preference for different color appearance modes. We, consequently, suggest that color preference is dominated not only by color attributes but also by the mode of color appearance. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010     

Color identification data obtained from photopic to mesopic illuminance levels

To use colors properly as an aid in visual tasks, it is necessary to know how colors are identified under various illuminating environments. In this study color identification was examined under a wide range of illuminances, from photopic to mesopic levels. Fifteen subjects named a color chip using one of the preselected color terms: red, orange, yellow, yellow‐green, green, blue‐green, blue, purple, pink, brown, white, gray, and black. The 256 color chips were selected from value planes of 4, 6, and 8 of the Munsell color space. The illuminance levels tested were 1000, 10, 1, and 0.1 lx. At 1000 lx the color chips were identified consistently by each of the color terms. At 10 lx the pattern of color identification was very similar to that at 1000 lx, though the consistency of the identification evidently declined. At 1 lx great changes in color identification occurred. By 0.1 lx reliable color identification was completely lost, though blue and red responses remained. At the lower illuminances green was replaced with blue, and red, orange, and pink were frequently confused with each other. However, the border between blue and purple was almost constant. These results provide a scientific basis for the appropriate use of colors in various illuminating environments. Also, they are useful for studies in color appearance modeling. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 252–259, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10065     

Color appearance rating of familiar real objects under immersive viewing conditions

With the concept of memory colors being considered to play a crucial role for many imaging and lighting applications, the questions how people assess the color appearance of familiar objects and what kind of fundamental characteristics can be derived from these assessments have extensively been studied in the past. However, all of the previous studies, the authors of this article are aware of, lack in realistic viewing and adaptation conditions. In the attempt of overcoming these deficiencies, a new experiment investigating the impact of long‐term memory on the color appearance ratings of 12 familiar test objects was performed. The pooled observer data were modeled in CIECAM02 color space using bivariate Gaussian functions whose centroids define the corresponding memory color centers for each test object. Comparisons with previous results obtained by Smet et al. revealed no significant differences in the reported memory color centers, but showed distinct deviations in the covariance matrices defining the shape of the fitted distribution functions. It is supposed that this new set of functions will lead to significantly different results when being used for the construction of an updated memory‐based color quality metric.     

The use of metamers to compare the color vision of observers

In this research we compare the colorimetric behavior of several observers. For color centers recommended by CIE we have produced large sets of spectral distributions, which are metameric for the CIE 1931 standard observer. For each one of the color centers, we compare the clouds of chromaticity coordinates with the chromaticity thresholds. We define a parameter that provides a quantitative measure of the interobserver variability. This parameter is used to arrange the observers by their degree of likeness. A similar procedure has been used to compare two real observers. It is shown how there is no reciprocity between the colorimetric behavior of two real observers. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 26, 262–269, 2001     

Experimental determination of the laws of color harmony. Part 4: Color preference and the color harmony content

In 1956, we decided at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics to start a large‐scale experiment on color harmony. The experiments and the processing of the experimental results have been completed in 2006. These experiments, described in this article, form a study of how much are people, participating in the experiment, influenced by their own personal color preference in judging the harmony content of a composition. These experiments have utilized the results of former (1958–1969) color preference experiments and the system of color preference indexes, which were developed by the generalization of those results. Within the framework of these experiments, conducted between 1998 and 2006 there were 24 compositions, shown to the participants, at first one by one, then in pairs and at last in groups of six. They had to assess the harmony content of the compositions and award a score on a scale between 0 and 10. Each composition possessed a specific amount of harmony content according to the rules of color space, based on the Coloroid harmony threshold and verified by former experiments. In these experiments the number of elementary observations were 135 568. The people participating in the experiment were approximately equal number of men and women, from the age group between 10 and 70 years. During processing, by using the color preference numerical indexing system, we compared the results of those experiments with the color preference of a similar age group, by using color compositions, identical to the ones used in the present experiment. We have found that the sensation of the color harmony and its intensity have a strong relation to how the observers relate to colors and also their color preferences. The sensation of color harmony is also influenced by the gender and the age of the observer. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 34, 210–224, 2009     

Color classification using color vision models

According to recent physiological research results, there are many individual differences already at the detection level of our color vision system. It is not completely clear yet, how the other levels of color vision system compensate the detection differences. Instead of detecting and analyzing colors exactly in the same way, we all just have learned to classify colors in a certain way, which seems to lead almost always to the same result independent of the individual differences in the color vision system. In this article, we experiment with four models developed for replicating certain properties of human color vision. We examine the color classification abilities of these models and show the differences and similarities in their behavior. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010.     

Effects of hue,saturation, and brightness on preference

A study was done to investigate preference responses for foreground–background color relationships. To do this, 123 university undergraduates in Ankara, Turkey, were asked to view eight background colors selected from HSB color space on which color squares of differing hues, saturations, and brightnesses were presented. Subjects were asked to show the color square they preferred on the presented background color. Findings showed that colors having maximum saturation and brightness were most preferred. Blue was the most preferred hue regardless of background. The findings for preferences for foreground–background color relationships are also included in this article. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 199–207, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10051     

Preference for color‐enhanced images assessed by color deficiencies

In this study, we propose color images with color enhancement for congenital red–green color deficiency on the basis of the model proposed by Mochizuki et al. [In Terrassa, Spain: Proceedings for CGIV, Springfield VA: IS&T 2008;208–213] with the aim of facilitating color customization in displays used by color‐deficient observers. Three types of color enhancements for deficiency were addressed in this study: colors were enhanced along the protan confusion line (i.e., P‐enhancement), deutan confusion line (i.e., D‐enhancement), and a line between the protan and deutan confusion lines (i.e., mix‐enhancement). We investigated the color‐enhanced image that is most preferred by each group of protan, deutan, and normal observers. Protan and deutan in this study indicate observers that are both dichromats and anomalous trichromats. Nine protan, nine deutan, and six normal observers participated in the experiment. The results showed that among the three types of color enhancements, the D‐enhancement provided the best performance for protan observers. For deutan observers, all three types provided effective enhancement, although the P‐ and mix‐enhancements were slightly better than the D‐enhancement. Our results indicated that color enhancement increases the preference evaluations of protan and deutan observers. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 234–251, 2014; Published Online 20 February 2013 in Wiley Online Library ( wileyonlinelibrary.com ). DOI 10.1002/col.21795     

Evaluation of a Model of Colour Vision by Magnitude Scalings: Discussion of Collected Results

Coefficients of variation that show the degree to which the Hunt model of colour vision is successful in predicting the LUTCRI appearance data are gathered together in this article for a very wide range of viewing conditions. The model now consistently predicts these data as closely as the results of a single observer. agree with the average results of a group of six observers. The nature of the adjustments that have had to be made to the model to achieve this result are described. and their implications are discussed.     

An Improved Predictor of Colourfulness in a Model of Colour Vision

An improved predictor of colourfulness in the Hunt 91 model of colour vision is described. A new chroma predictor allows for the effect of the luminance Jactor of the background more effectively, and results in more consistent predictions for different viewing conditions. The new colourfulness predictor is obtained by multiplying the new chroma predictor by a factor that varies more slowly with the level of adapting luminance than was the case for the old colourfulness predictor; this results in much better predictions, whose coefficients of variation are similar to those that characterize observer consistency. The steps required for reversing the model are given in an appendix.     

Study on the preference of city color image selection based on the logistic model: A case study of Shanghai

With the continuous progress of urbanization, China's urban color planning has begun to receive attention, but there are still many problems in the quality of color environment. In order to clarify further the urban color positioning of our country, the detailed urban color planning objectives are set up, and the opinions of residents with different attributes are included in the consideration scope of urban color planning objectives, so as to guide the future urban color planning scientifically. From the perspective of urban residents' preference, this article takes Shanghai as an example to analyze the difference of residents' preference for urban color selection with different attributes. In this article, the logistic regression model was used to analyze the results of residents' choice, so as to conclude that the significant factors influencing residents' preference for city color image include age, monthly income, current city of residence, frequency of coming to Shanghai and whether they have been to other countries. Therefore, paying attention to the above significant attributes of residents and carrying out in-depth research can provide reference value for the status of the city's future color image.     

基于WCS色彩管理系统跨媒体颜色复制准确性的研究

微软公司推出的Windows Vista操作系统采用WCS(Windows ColorSystem)色彩管理系统,利用基于测量的设备特性文件,结合相应的设备模型,得到设备颜色空间和标准颜色空间之间的映射.WCS采用CIECAM02色貌模型,所有的颜色转换都在CIECAM02中进行,从而可以预测不同视觉条件下的颜色视觉属性.本论文首先在分析研究由微软和佳能公司联合开发的新一代基于色貌模型CIECAM02的WCS色彩管理的特点和工作流程基础上,根据WCS设备模型特性文件方案和显示器测量数据,利用XML语言编写了显示器的WCS设备模型特性文件,设计出利用显示器模拟跨媒体色彩传输的实验路径和方法,使得跨媒体传输色彩的结果可以直观地进行评价;对ICC色彩管理系统下输出的图像和在WCS色彩管理系统下输出的图像进行了比较.结果进一步证实,WCS色彩管理系统较ICC色彩管理系统具有在色彩实时转换和跨媒体方面的优点.本课题的研究成果对利用WCS色彩管理系统实现高保真的色彩复制具有一定的指导意义.     

Individual differences of unique hue loci and their relation to color preferences

Loci of the four unique hues (red, green, blue, and yellow) on the equiluminant plane on the color display and three preferred colors were obtained from 115 normal trichromats. We sought possible correlations between these measures. Different unique hue loci were not correlated with each other. The three preferred colors were not correlated with each other. We found five combinations of significant correlation between a preferred color and unique hue settings, yet the overall tendency is not very clear. We conclude that individual differences in color appearance measured by unique hues and color preferences measured by asking for favorite colors may not be predicted from each other or even within a category because the differences in the earlier visual mechanisms can be compensated for and these high‐level measures can be influenced by learning and experience. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 285–291, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20023     

Color appearance and color connotation models for unrelated colors

The purpose of this research is to investigate the color appearance and color connotation of unrelated colors. To investigate color appearance (i.e., brightness, colorfulness, and hue) for unrelated colors, 22 observers have answered their color appearance for 50 unrelated color stimuli using the magnitude estimation method. Perceptual data obtained by the experiment is compared with the color attributes data estimated by unrelated‐color appearance models, CAM97u and CAM02u. It is found that both models perform reasonably well but the performance of CAM02u is better than that of CAM97u. For investigating color connotation for unrelated colors, 32 observers have judged their color connotation for the 50 unrelated color stimuli using the 10 color connotation scales (i.e., “Warm – Cool,” “Heavy – Light,” “Modern – Classical,” “Clean – Dirty,” “Active – Passive,” “Hard – Soft,” Tense – Relaxed,” “Fresh – Stale,” “Masculine – feminine,” and “like – Dislike”), and semantic differential method is used for measurement. It is found that the color connotation models developed for related colors perform poorly for unrelated colors. Experimental results indicate that brightness attribute is confusing to estimate and does not affect color connotation significantly for unrelated colors. Based on the psychophysical data, new models for “Warm‐Cool”, “Heavy‐Light”, “Active‐Passive” and “Hard‐Soft” were proposed using CAM02u hue, brightness, and colorfulness. Color connotations for unrelated colors are classified into three categories, which “Color solidity,” “Color heat,” and “Color purity.” © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 40–49, 2015     

In vitro optical characterization of dental resin composite aged in darkness

The overall objective of this study is to confirm the method of determining the accuracy of Kubelka-Munk reflectance theory (KMRT) for composite materials after undergoing aging unrelated to surface exposure. The specific aims of this study include comparisons of optical characterizations for two dental resin composite materials before and after aging in darkness. Aging of five shades of two nanohybrid dental resin composite materials was accomplished under relatively normal room conditions in a dark enclosure for over 3 years. The accuracy of KMRT was assessed and optical absorption and scattering and color and translucency characterizations were performed. The magnitudes of the error of nonlinear regression of reflectance after aging to KMRT are well within the limits of expected measurement error as applied to regression analysis. The characterizations of inherent optical scattering, inherent color, and translucency indicate that aging in darkness will have some effect for at least some shades of the materials studied. KMRT is a reliable method to predict the reflectance of dental resin aged in darkness and permits subsequent clinically relevant optical characterizations of materials aged in this manner. Although changes in optical scattering were detected due to this aging, such changes appear to have a negligible clinical effect on color and translucency.     

Colour preference for Taiwanese floral pattern fabrics

A psychophysical experiment was carried out to investigate factors affecting colour preference for Taiwanese floral pattern fabrics, as a case study of object colour preference. A total of 175 test images of Taiwanese fabrics were used as the stimuli presented on a calibrated computer display. The images were generated on the basis of 5 existing Taiwanese fabrics, each manipulated into 35 images by changing the fabric colour. The 35 colours were selected to cover the most frequently used colours for existing Taiwanese fabrics. The 175 test images were assessed by 76 Taiwanese observers in terms of 9 semantic scales, including Taiwanese style/non‐Taiwanese style, Japanese style/non‐Japanese style, splendid/plain, traditional/modern, active/passive, warm/cool, heavy/light, like/dislike and harmonious/disharmonious. The experimental results reveal two underlying factors: “Splendidness” and “Harmony.” The like/dislike response was found to highly correlate with harmonious/disharmonious, but have poor correlation with Taiwanese style/non‐Taiwanese style. The study also reveals several factors affecting colour preference for Taiwanese fabrics, including the interaction effect of colour and pattern, observer's general liking for the object, and the effect of user experience. These findings can help develop a more robust, comprehensive theory of object colour preference. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 43–55, 2016     

Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian regions,with special emphasis on the preference for white

The results of three surveys are presented. The first survey was carried out in four large cities in Japan, and the findings were analyzed by factor analysis and cluster analysis. The second survey was carried out in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the two countries, focusing on the preference for white. The last survey compared color preference in Taipei and Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. In these successive studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian cities, the subjects were mainly asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results of Survey 1 showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Also factor analysis and cluster analysis indicated some relation between color preference and the subjects' life styles. Dual scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference tendencies and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. These results thus demonstrated a common strong preference for white in three neighboring Asian areas. The reasons given for the choices suggested that besides the factors of age and sex, associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be an important factor influencing color preference. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Color appearance modeling of bicolor striped woven fabrics considering neighboring color effects

In this article, the effect of the spatial and colorimetric attributes of neighboring color on color appearance shift in bicolor striped woven fabrics is investigated. A total of 240 test/neighboring woven color combinations were constructed in four different striped paradigms. Each test color in the combinations was visually assessed by 12 observer panels with the use of the magnitude estimation method estimating the magnitude of perceptual color attributes lightness, colorfulness, and hue. The visual estimates obtained were analyzed statistically by employing correlation and simple regression methods, and, as a result, the following significant neighboring color effects were detected and individually defined: (1) neighboring color's size, lightness, colorfulness, and hue on test color's lightness, (2) neighboring color's colorfulness and hue on test color's colorfulness, and (3) neighboring color's hue on test color's hue. Furthermore, through multiple regression analysis, color appearance models by which the lightness, colorfulness, and hue of bicolor woven fabrics can be predicted were derived. The predictive performance of the models was evaluated by calculating the difference between the visually estimated and the predicted color appearances, using ΔL*, ΔC*, Δh°, and ΔE_CMC(2:1). Among all the derived models, the model producing the smallest mean error was chosen as a final model, and its great accuracy in color appearance predictions was verified through further statistical evaluation. It is envisaged that the findings of this research are of benefit to design textile products with bicolor striped woven fabrics to have desired color appearances. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 42, 512–521, 2017     

Preference for Japanese complexion color under illumination

To find the chromaticity coordinates of the “Preferred Complexion of Japanese Woman” under illumination, subjective estimation experiments were conducted on the complexions of 3 female models under each of 40 colors of illumination. The chromaticity coordinates of “Preferred Complexion” for each model were about the same together. The average chromaticity coordinates of 3 female models were (u′, v′) = (0.2425, 0.4895) under the standard illuminant D65. The “Preferred Complexion of Japanese Woman” in this experiment was compared with the “Preferred Complexion of Caucasian Woman” studied by Sanders. The “Preferred Complexion of Japanese Woman” was shifted to a slightly higher saturation and reddish in hue, compared with the actual complexion of “Japanese Woman.” On the other hand, the “Preferred Complexion of Caucasian Woman” was orange in hue, the same as the actual complexion of “Caucasian Woman.” The color shift of saturation of the “Caucasian Woman” was 3.5 times as large as that of the “Japanese Woman.” © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 22, 269–274, 1997     

Color appearance of afterimages compared to the chromatic adaptation to illumination

The color appearance of negative afterimages was measured by the elementary color naming method, and the results were compared with those obtained by the two‐room technique. Twenty adapting stimuli were presented on a display sequentially. Subjects first assessed the color appearance of the stimuli. After looking at the adapting stimulus for 10 seconds, the subjects assessed color of the afterimage. Apparent hue of the afterimage was in general not opponent color to the adapting color. The relation between the adapting stimuli and the afterimages was analyzed by the angle difference Δθ, when apparent hues are expressed by the angles of the points on the polar diagram of the opponent color theory. The relation relationship of Δθ to the angle of the adapting color θ_ing was quite similar to the results obtained by the two‐room technique, implying that the chromatic adaptation shown by the afterimage also occurs in the brain rather than in the retina.