Levels of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and thermostable direct hemolysin gene-positive organisms in retail seafood determined by the most probable number-polymerase chain reaction (MPN-PCR) method

The incidence and levels of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and thermostable direct hemolysin gene (tdh)-positive organisms in retail seafood were determined. The most probable number-polymerase chain reaction (MPN-PCR) method using a PCR procedure targeting the species-specific thermolabile hemolysin gene (tlh) and tdh was used to determine the levels of V. parahaemolyticus and tdh-positive organisms, respectively. In seafood for raw consumption, V. parahaemolyticus was found in four (13.3%) of 30 fish samples, 11 (55.0%) of 20 crustacean samples, and 29 (96.7%) of 30 mollusc samples. Levels of V. parahaemolyticus were below 10(4) MPN/100 g in all fish and crustacean samples tested. However, they were above 10(4) MPN/100 g in 11 (36.7%) of the 30 mollusc samples. In all seafood for raw consumption, the level of tdh-positive organisms was below the limit of detection (< 30 MPN/100 g). In seafood for cooking, V. parahaemolyticus was found in 15 (75.0%) of 20 fish samples, nine (45.0%) of 20 crustacean sample, and 20 (100%) of 20 mollusc samples. Levels of V. parahaemolyticus were above 10(4) MPN/100 g in only three (15.0%) and one (5.0%) of the 20 fish and 20 crustacean samples, respectively. However, they were above 10(4) MPN/100 g in 18 (90.0%) of the 20 mollusc samples. In seven (35.0%) of the 20 mollusc samples, tdh-positive organisms were found and their levels ranged from 3.6x10 to 1.1 x 103 MPN/100 g. From four of seven tdhpositive samples, tdh-positive V. parahaemolyticus was isolated.     

巢式PCR快速检测海产品中的副溶血弧菌

副溶血弧菌是一种世界范围性的食源性致病菌,食用了该菌污染的海产品可导致胃肠炎等疾病。为了建立一种可快速、特异地检测海产品中副溶血弧菌的方法,通过把副溶血弧菌基因组序列和其它不同种类弧菌的基因组序列进行比较分析,筛选出了一个副溶血弧菌特异性的标记基因-VP1331,根据该基因建立了副溶血弧菌的巢式PCR快速检测方法,并评估了其特异性、敏感性和稳定性。实验结果表明,该方法只有在以副溶血弧菌基因组DNA为模板时才能扩增出目的片段,而其它11种弧菌和非弧菌均不能扩增出目的片段。该方法的最低检测限为副溶血弧菌基因组DNA 10 fg、纯培养物6.6 CFU。人工污染实验表明,初始菌液浓度为25.7 CFU/100 mL时只需经过2 h的增菌培养即可检出。上述结果表明,VP1331基因可以作为副溶血弧菌种特异性标记,本方法可以用于污染海产品中该菌的检测与鉴定。     

北京口岸进口鲜活海产品中副溶血性弧菌致病性分析

目的调查从北京口岸进口的鲜活海产品中是否存在致病性副溶血性弧菌。方法对2005年从北京口岸进口的鲜活海产品中分离的267株副溶血性弧菌（Vibrio parahaemolyticus）的尿素酶活性、神奈川现象和毒性基因（tdh和trh）进行了检测。结果267株副溶血性弧菌中27株尿素酶呈阳性，其中14株菌tdh基因和砌基因呈阳性。tdh基因和trh基因呈阳性的14株菌中有10株菌神奈川现象为阳性，并且全部分离自从加拿大进口的象拔蚌。结论北京口岸进口的鲜活海产品中存在致病性副溶血性弧菌，主要集中在象拔蚌中。应对从加拿大进口的象拔蚌加强监管，防止致病性副溶血性弧菌引起食物中毒发生。     

三重real-time PCR检测副溶血弧菌主要毒力基因

针对编码副溶血弧菌的特异性基因和主要毒力基因tlh、tdh、ureR进行引物及探针设计,通过优化反应条件,建立基于Taqman探针快速检测副溶血弧菌毒力基因的三重实时聚合酶链式反应（real-time polymerase chain reaction,real-time PCR）方法。利用10 株副溶血弧菌和22 株非副溶血弧菌对设计的引物及探针进行特异性验证,结果表明设计的引物及探针具有很高的特异性;优化后的引物浓度分别为tdh 0.15 μmol/L、tlh 0.15 μmol/L、ureR 0.80 μmol/L,探针浓度分别为HEX 0.50 μmol/L、FAM 0.50 μmol/L;该方法即使在高浓度的背景细菌存在下,DNA浓度与Ct值均呈良好的线性关系,检出限为1.8×102 拷贝/mL;以完整菌细胞的悬液为模板时,预变性时间为30 min,扩增检测效果与以基因组DNA（gDNA）为模板相当（ΔCt＜1）。本研究建立的三重real-time PCR方法能实现快速定量检测副溶血弧菌,并能有效区分致病性及非致病性副溶血弧菌,为副溶血弧菌的快速定量检测和风险评估提供快速、灵敏、准确的方法。     

Pathogenetic characterization of Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from clinical and seafood sources

A total of 216 Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from seafood and clinical samples in eastern China were investigated for their hemolytic and urea-producing phenotypes, presence of putative virulence genes tdh and trh. Twenty-one clinical isolates (84%, 21/25) and 3 seafood isolates (1.57%, 3/191) were tdh-positive while only 3 clinical isolates (12%) and 7 seafood isolates (3.66%) were positive for trh gene. We further examined the pathogenicity of selected V. parahaemolyticus isolates in in vitro and in vivo systems. The clinical isolates were apparently more enteropathogenic (74.26 per thousand vs 62.07 per thousand expressed as intestine/body weight ratio, P<0.01) and more virulent than their seafood counterparts to mice (log LD(50) 6.86 vs 7.40 via orogastric route, P<0.05). They were also more adherent to in vitro cultured cells and of higher cytotoxicity as measured by LDH release of the HeLa cells although there were no statistical differences. The tdh-positive V. parahaemolyticus isolates were of higher enteropathogenicity (P<0.05, 74.24 per thousand vs 60.55 per thousand) and more virulent (log LD(50) 6.55 vs 7.21 via intraperitoneal route, P<0.05) than tdh-negative isolates. The tdh-positive isolates were generally more cytotoxic and adhesive to the cultured cell lines as well. From the in vitro and in vivo pathogenicity profiles, trh-positive isolates seemed to line between tdh-positive isolates and those without tdh and trh. There were two isolates H8 and H10 from clinical cases having moderate enteropathogenicity and virulence to mice, but were tdh-negative yet trh-positive. These results seem to suggest that hemolysins TDH and/or TRH may not be necessarily the only virulence factors of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus isolates.     

食品中副溶血性弧菌toxR和tdh基因双色荧光PCR检测方法的建立

目的 建立对副溶血性弧菌（Vibrio parahaemolyticus）特异性检测toxR（跨膜转录激活蛋白）基因和tdh（热稳定性直接溶血素）毒力基因的Taqman探针双色荧光PCR检测方法。方法 根据副溶血性弧菌toxR基因和tdh基因,分别设计引物和探针,建立Taqman探针双色荧光PCR扩增体系,进行特异性、灵敏度试验;对副溶血性弧菌分离菌株实施检测,了解其tdh基因和tdh基因分布情况。结果 结果表明,副溶血性弧菌标准菌株和3株从食物中毒患者中分离获得的分离株均出现toxR基因和tdh扩增曲线,而溶藻弧菌、单增李斯特菌等31株弧菌属其他菌株和肠杆菌科的菌株未见扩增曲线。从食品中分离的37株副溶血性弧菌分离株均未携带tdh毒力基因。副溶血性弧菌检测灵敏度可达到3.6×102 cfu/mL。结论 该方法可用于同时检测食品中副溶血性弧菌的特异性和毒力基因。     

Occurrence of the tdh and trh genes in Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from waters and raw shellfish collected in two French coastal areas and from seafood imported into France

The occurrence of the hemolysin genes, tdh and trh, in Vibrio parahaemolyticus strains isolated from environmental samples collected in two French coastal areas, clinical samples, and seafood products imported into France was studied. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with two sets of primers was used to detect the hemolysin genes. Most of the clinical isolates (91%) and 1.5% of the isolates from seafood possessed the hemolysin genes. Three and fifteen percent, respectively, of the two groups of environmental strains carried the hemolysin genes depending on the geographic site. The tdh and trh genes play important roles in virulence. Thus, our results indicate that pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus isolates are present in French coastal areas and in seafood imported into France. Furthermore, they may also be present in French seafood products.     

Characteristics of a sharp decrease in Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections and seafood contamination in Japan

Vibrio parahaemolyticus has been one of the most important foodborne pathogens in Japan since the 1960s, and a large epidemic was caused by the pandemic serotype O3:K6 from 1997 to 2001. V. parahaemolyticus infections, however, have sharply declined since that time. Data on serotypes isolated from 977 outbreaks were collected and analysed. Total and pathogenic, thermostable direct hemolysin (TDH) gene-positive V. parahaemolyticus were qualitatively and quantitatively detected in 842 seafood samples from wholesale markets in 2007-2009. Strains isolated from patients and seafood were analysed by serotyping, tdh-PCR, group-specific PCR for pandemic strains, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The sharp decrease in the infections from 1999 onwards was noted not only for O3:K6 infections but also for other serotypes. The change in the seafood contamination situation from 2001 to 2007-2009 was characterised by a decrease to three-fourths in the frequency of tdh-positive samples, although that decrease was small compared to the 18-fold decrease in the cases of V. parahaemolyticus outbreaks. PFGE detected the pandemic O3:K6 serotype in the same profile in seafood and patients from 1998 to the present. Because of no large decrease in seafood contamination by V. parahaemolyticus from the production to distribution stages and the presence of pandemic O3:K6 serotype in seafood to the present, it was suggested that the change of seafood contamination was unrelated to the sharp decrease in V. parahaemolyticus infections. V. parahaemolyticus infections might be prevented at the stages after the distribution stage.     

Evaluation of nonisotopic DNA hybridization methods for detection of the tdh gene of vibrio parahaemolyticus

Production of the thermostable direct hemolysin (TDH) by Vibrio parahaemolyticus is associated with pathogenicity of the organism and is encoded by the tdh gene. The timely resolution of seafood-associated outbreaks requires rapid and accurate detection of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus. The specificity of alkaline phosphatase- and digoxigenin-labeled tdh gene probes was evaluated against 61 strains of V. parahaemolyticus (including isolates from recent outbreaks involving oysters from the Pacific Northwest, Texas, and New York), 85 strains of other vibrios, and 7 strains of non-vibrio species from clinical and environmental sources. The probes were specific for detection of the V. parahaemolyticus tdh gene.     

北部湾茅尾海副溶血性弧菌的分离鉴定与致病性分析

为解析北部湾海域及水产品中副溶血性弧菌的多样性特征与安全风险,本研究采集了北部湾茅尾海养殖区域海水和水产经济动物样品,利用硫代硫酸盐柠檬酸盐胆盐蔗糖琼脂培养基(TCBS)对所采样品进行海洋弧菌的分离和纯化,共分离获得109株疑似弧菌菌株。通过16S rDNA和特异功能基因toxR的PCR扩增并测序鉴定,共检出副溶血性弧菌20株,检出率为18.3%。此外,通过系统发育分析还发现副溶血性弧菌的toxR和tdh基因序列都存在水平基因转移现象,呈现出较大的多样性。对20个副溶血性弧菌菌株的毒力基因tdh进行分析,结果表明有4株携带了tdh毒力基因,检出率为20%,易引起食物中毒,对公共卫生造成的威胁较大。因此,本研究建议采用PCR技术开展副溶血性弧菌特异种属基因和毒力基因检测,准确评估北部湾区域海水及其水产品的卫生安全性,降低爆发水产养殖业病害和食源性疾病的风险。     

Evaluation of most-probable-number-PCR method with internal amplification control for the counting of total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus in frozen shrimps

The most-probable-number (MPN) method is often time-consuming for the isolation, detection, and quantification of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from natural sources. MPN counting of V. parahaemolyticus bacteria usually involves the isolation of typical V. parahaemolyticus colonies on selective medium, with subsequent confirmation by biochemical identification. In this study, we evaluated the use of a PCR on MPN enrichment cultures (MPN-PCR) for the direct detection of total and pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus cells in frozen shrimp. This reaction targeted the R72H, tdh, and trh sequences. An internal amplification control was added to the samples before R72H amplification. There was an excellent correlation between the results of the two methods for artificially inoculated and natural shrimp samples. Of 36 natural samples, 28 tested positive for the presence of V. parahaemolyticus, with an MPN value of 2 × 10(-1) to 9.2 × 10(1) per g. No pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus cells were detected. The test had a detection limit of one V. parahaemolyticus organism per g and was completed within two working days. These results support the use of the combination of PCR with MPN for the detection of total or potentially pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus cells in frozen shrimp.     

Seasonal distribution of total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Chesapeake Bay oysters and waters

The objectives of this study were to investigate the seasonal distribution of total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the Chesapeake Bay oysters and waters, and to determine the degree of association between V. parahaemolyticus densities and selected environmental parameters. Oyster and water samples were collected monthly from three sites in Chesapeake Bay, Maryland from November 2004 through October 2005. During collection of samples, water temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, chlorophyll a, and fecal coliform levels in oysters were also determined. V. parahaemolyticus levels were enumerated by a quantitative direct-plating method followed by DNA colony hybridization; presence/absence was further determined by overnight broth enrichment followed by either standard colony isolation or real-time PCR. The thermolabile hemolysin (tlh) gene and thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh) gene were targeted for detection of total and pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus, respectively, for both direct plating and enrichment. The thermostable related hemolysin (trh) gene, which is a presumptive pathogenicity marker, was targeted only for the enrichment approach. By direct plating, colonies producing tlh signals were detected in 79% of oyster samples at densities ranging from 1.5x10(1) to 6.0x10(2) CFU/g. Pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus (tdh+) was detected in 3% (level was 10 CFU/g) of oyster samples while no V. parahaemolyticus was detected in water samples. By the enrichment approach with standard colony isolation, 67% of oyster and 55% of water samples (n=33) were positive for total V. parahaemolyticus, and all samples were negative for pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus. In contrast, enrichment followed by real-time PCR detected tlh, tdh and trh in 100%, 20% and 40% of oyster and 100%, 13% and 40% of water enrichments collected from June to October 2005, respectively. V. parahaemolyticus densities in oysters varied seasonally and were found to be positively correlated with water temperature, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen.     

乙醇促进副溶血性弧菌直接耐热溶血素的基因表达

研究乙醇对副溶血性弧菌(Vibrio parahaemolyticus)直接耐热溶血素(thermostable direct hemolysin,TDH)产生和它的编码基因tdh表达的影响。以0.5%、1.0%、2.0%、4.0%、8.0%乙醇处理2株带有tdh副溶血性弧菌ATCC33847和SZ32,研究对副溶血性弧菌有氧或者无氧生长的影响。选取1.0%乙醇处理来研究TDH产量和tdh表达变化。使用TDH抗血清试剂盒测定副溶血性弧菌培养液上清中TDH水平;使用荧光定量PCR方法分析tdh基因表达状况。低浓度(0.5%、1.0%、2.0%)乙醇存在时,副溶血弧菌菌株的生长未受到显著影响,乙醇浓度4.0%时副溶血性弧菌生长受到明显抑制,8%时未见有细菌生长。1.0%乙醇处理副溶血性弧菌培养液上清中TDH水平较未处理显著上升。胞内tdh表达水平升高,ATCC33847在有氧和无氧时分别升高到6.6倍和5.7倍,SZ32在有氧和无氧时分别升高到5.9倍和8.6倍。乙醇能够促进tdh基因表达从而使得TDH蛋白产量升高。本研究还比较了甲醇、乙醇、正丙醇对tdh表达的影响,发现它们对tdh表达均具有促进作用但相互之间没有明显差异。     

养殖海水贝类中副溶血性弧菌的致病性及 耐药性分析

目的对从山东和辽宁沿海地区养殖海水贝类中分离到的84株副溶血性弧菌进行致病性及耐药性分析。方法通过PCR扩增及测序法检测毒力基因,通过神奈川试验测定溶血能力,采用K-B法进行药敏试验分析。结果 84株菌均含有tlh基因,均不含trh基因,有1株菌含tdh基因。tdh基因阳性菌株的神奈川试验呈阳性,其余菌株均呈阴性。菌株对氨苄西林、头孢呋辛钠和复方新诺明的耐药率分别为91.7%、6.0%和1.2%。所有菌株对阿莫西林/克拉维酸、头孢曲松、头孢吡肟、阿米卡星、庆大霉素、亚胺培南、氧氟沙星、环丙沙星、萘啶酸、氯霉素、氟苯尼考和呋喃妥因高度敏感。结论海水贝类中含有少量致病性副溶血性弧菌,菌株存在一定程度的耐药性,提示应加强对海产品中副溶血性弧菌致病性及耐药性的监控。     

Development of a quantitative real-time PCR method for estimation of the total number of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in contaminated shellfish and seawater

A real-time PCR method targeting the toxR gene of Vibrio parahaemolyticus was developed to quantify the number of V. parahaemolyticus cells, including those of both the hemolysin-producing and nonproducing strains. The specificity of the primer and probe set was confirmed using 25 strains of V. parahaemolyticus and 30 strains of other microbial species. We determined the threshold cycle number using the real-time PCR and the number of V. parahaemolyticus cells by plate count using serially diluted pure culture and developed a standard curve for quantification. Standard curves for V. parahaemolyticus in seawater and seafood were established using artificially inoculated samples. The threshold cycle number and the number of V. parahaemolyticus cells were correlated with 10(1) to 10(7) CFU/ml in pure culture, seawater, and shellfish homogenate. The real-time PCR method developed in this study was compared with the most-probable-number method in seafood samples that were naturally contaminated. The differences in the number of V. parahaemolyticus cells as determined by the culture method and the PCR method were less than 10-fold.     

水产品中副溶血性弧菌实时荧光PCR检测方法

建立了一种特异、灵敏、稳定的副溶血性弧菌(Vibrio parahemolyticus,VP)致病基因的检测方法。对已建立的副溶血性弧菌致病基因tdh、trh和tlh荧光PCR方法的特异性、灵敏度和重复性进行检测,以验证该方法的有效性。该方法与副溶血性弧菌反应良好,与其他弧菌属和非弧菌属的6株常见食源性致病菌无交叉反应;检测了6株副溶血性弧菌标准菌株和分离株,3种致病基因检出限分别为tlh 6～43 CFU/mL,tdh 97～1 700 CFU/mL,trh 1 100～4 000 CFU/mL;3种致病基因20次重复组内变异系数在0.96%～1.50%,组间变异系数在2.70%～4.10%。该方法操作简便,特异性强,灵敏度高,能够准确、快速、灵敏地检测水产品中副溶血性弧菌。     

基于环介导等温扩增法(LAMP)检测上海市售贝类产品中副溶血性弧菌的毒力菌株

基于环介导等温扩增法(LAMP)对上海市8-10月市售贝类产品中副溶血性弧菌毒力菌株(tdh和trh毒力基因)进行检测分析,共检测贝类样品180份,6个常规品种,实验同时采用PCR测定方法进行对比。结果表明,含tdh和trh毒力基因的副溶血性弧菌在市售贝类中的检出率分别是12.77%和11.66%,PCR的分析结果为11.11%和7.78%。对分离的毒力菌株进行血清型分型后发现了2株O3:K6型副溶血性弧菌,其中1株为毒力基因双阳性菌(tdh+/trh+)。2株O3:K6型副溶血性弧菌的PFGE条带型相似度较高(相似度90%)。这些结果表明上海市售贝类产品中副溶血性弧菌毒力菌株存在一定的污染,应引起足够重视。双阳性O3:K6型副溶血性弧菌的出现值得关注,应对各血清型菌株尤其是O3:K6型副溶血性弧菌的流行情况加强监测。PCR检测结果对比分析表明,LAMP方法适用于贝类产品中副溶血性弧菌毒力菌株的检测分析。     

Evaluation of an alkaline phosphatase-labeled oligonucleotide probe for the detection and enumeration of the thermostable-related hemolysin (trh) gene of Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Reliable methods are needed to detect total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus. One marker of V. parahaemolyticus virulence is the thermostable-related hemolysin. We developed an alkaline phosphatase-labeled DNA probe method for the specific detection and enumeration of trh-positive V. parahaemolyticus by colony hybridization. The probe was tested against a panel of 200 bacterial strains and determined to be specific for trh-positive V. parahaemolyticus. Additionally, the trh alkaline phosphatase probe colony hybridization was successfully used to detect and enumerate trh-positive V. parahaemolyticus in seafood and water samples collected from the United States and the United Kingdom.     

Density of total and pathogenic (tdh+) Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Atlantic and Gulf coast molluscan shellfish at harvest

The densities of total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus in 671 samples of molluscan shellfish harvested in 1999 and 2000 from 14 sites in seven Gulf and Atlantic coast states were determined at 2-week intervals over a period of 12 to 16 months in each state. Changes in V. parahaemolyticus densities in shellfish between harvest and sample analysis were minimized with time and temperature controls. Densities were measured by direct plating techniques, and gene probes were used for identification. Total and pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus organisms were identified with probes for the thermolabile direct hemolysin (tlh) gene and the thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh) gene, respectively. An enrichment procedure involving 25 g of shellfish was also used for the recovery of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus. The densities of V. parahaemolyticus in shellfish from all harvest sites were positively correlated with water temperature. Shellfish from the Gulf Coast typically had higher densities of V. parahaemolyticus than did shellfish harvested from the North Atlantic or mid-Atlantic coast. Vibrio parahaemolyticus counts exceeded 1,000 CFU/g for only 5% of all samples. Pathogenic (tdh+) V. parahaemolyticus was detected in approximately 6% of all samples by both procedures, and 61.5% of populations in the positive samples from the direct plating procedure were at the lower limit of detection (10 CFU/g). The frequency of detection of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus was significantly related to water temperature and to the density of total V. parahaemolyticus. The failure to detect pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus in shellfish more frequently was attributed to the low numbers and uneven distribution of the organism.     

Evaluation of MPN method combined with PCR procedure for detection and enumeration of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in seafood

Vibrio parahaemolyticus densities in spiked and naturally contaminated seafood samples were enumerated by the MPN method combined with a PCR procedure (MPN-PCR method) targeting the species-specific thermolabile hemolysin gene (tlh), and by the MPN method using subcultivation of alkaline-peptone-water (APW) enrichment culture on thiosulfate-citrate-bile-sucrose (TCBS) agar (MPN-TCBS method). In the samples spiked with both V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus, the numbers of V. parahaemolyticus enumerated by the MPN-PCR method were similar to, or higher than the numbers of spiked cells, whereas those enumerated by the MPN-TCBS method were below the numbers of spiked cells. In naturally contaminated seafood samples, the numbers of V. parahaemolyticus enumerated by the MPN-PCR method were higher than those by the MPN-TCBS method. In the case of the MPN-TCBS method, isolation of V. parahaemolyticus from some APW cultures was difficult because of the overgrowth of many colonies other than V. parahaemolyticus (e.g., V. alginolyticus) on TCBS agar. In contrast, the PCR technique could detect tlh from APW culture without isolation of V. parahaemolyticus, so the possibility of failing to obtain a positive result in APW culture by the MPN-PCR method was considered to be lower than that by the MPN-TCBS method. Furthermore, utilization of the PCR technique reduces the time and labor required for the biochemical identification tests used in the MPN-TCBS method. For the detection and enumeration of V. parahaemolyticus in seafood, especially for samples that show many colonies other than V. parahaemolyticus on TCBS agar, the MPN-PCR method may be more convenient and reliable than the MPN-TCBS method.