Development of SAW-based multi-gas sensor for simultaneous detection of CO2 and NO2

A 440 MHz wireless and passive surface acoustic wave (SAW)-based multi-gas sensor integrated with a temperature sensor was developed on a 41° YX LiNbO₃ piezoelectric substrate for the simultaneous detection of CO₂, NO₂, and temperature. The developed sensor was composed of a SAW reflective delay lines structured by an interdigital transducer (IDT), ten reflectors, a CO₂ sensitive film (Teflon AF 2400), and a NO₂ sensitive film (indium tin oxide). Teflon AF 2400 was used for the CO₂ sensitive film because it provides a high CO₂ solubility, with good permeability and selectivity. For the NO₂ sensitive film, indium tin oxide (ITO) was used. Coupling of mode (COM) modeling was conducted to determine the optimal device parameters prior to fabrication. Using the parameters determined by the simulation results, the device was fabricated and then wirelessly measured using a network analyzer. The measured reflective coefficient S₁₁ in the time domain showed high signal/noise (S/N) ratio, small signal attenuation, and few spurious peaks. The time positions of the reflection peaks were well matched with the predicted values from the simulation. High sensitivity and selectivity were observed at each target gas testing. The obtained sensitivity was 2.12°/ppm for CO₂ and 51.5°/ppm for NO₂, respectively. With the integrated temperature sensor, temperature compensation was also performed during gas sensitivity evaluation process.     

Solid-state potentiometric SO2 sensor combining NASICON with V2O5-doped TiO2 electrode

A compact tubular sensor based on NASICON (sodium super ionic conductor) and V₂O₅-doped TiO₂ sensing electrode was designed for the detection of SO₂. In order to reduce the size of the sensor, a thick-film of NASICON was formed on the outer surface of a small Al₂O₃ tube; furthermore, a thin layer of V₂O₅-doped TiO₂ with nanometer size was attached on the NASICON as a sensing electrode. This paper investigated the influence of V₂O₅ doping and sintering temperature on the characteristics of the sensor. The sensor attached with 5 wt% V₂O₅-doped TiO₂ sintered at 600 °C exhibited excellent sensing properties to 1–50 ppm SO₂ in air at 200–400 °C. The EMF value of the sensor was almost proportional to the logarithm of SO₂ concentration and the sensitivity (slope) was −78 mV/decade at 300 °C. It was also seen that the sensor showed a good selectivity to SO₂ against NO, NO₂, CH₄, CO, NH₃ and CO₂. Moreover, the sensor had speedy response kinetics to SO₂ too, the 90% response time to 50 ppm SO₂ was 10 s, and the recovery time was 35 s. On the basis of XPS analysis for the SO₂-adsorbed sensing electrode, a sensing mechanism involving the mixed potential at the sensing electrode was proposed.     

Electrostatic sprayed SnO2 and Cu-doped SnO2 films for H2S detection

This paper presents the ability of electrostatic sprayed tin oxide (SnO₂) and tin oxide doped with copper oxide (1, 2, and 4 at.% Cu) films to detect different pollutant gases, i.e., H₂S, SO₂, and NO₂. The influence of a copper oxide dopant on the SnO₂ morphology is studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique, which reveals a small decrease in the porosity and particle size when the amount of dopant is increased. The sensing properties of the SnO₂ films are greatly improved by doping, i.e., the Cu-doped SnO₂ films have large response to low concentration (10 ppm) of H₂S at low operating temperature (100 °C). Furthermore, no cross-sensitivity to 1 ppm NO₂ and 20 ppm SO₂ is observed. Among the studied films, the 1 at.% Cu-doped SnO₂ layer is the most sensitive in the detection of all the studied gases.     

Epitaxially grown graphene based gas sensors for ultra sensitive NO2 detection

Epitaxially grown single layer and multi layer graphene on SiC devices were fabricated and compared for response towards NO₂. Due to electron donation from SiC, single layer graphene is n-type with a very low carrier concentration. The choice of substrate is demonstrated to enable tailoring of the electronic properties of graphene, with a SiC substrate realising simple resistive devices tuned for extremely sensitive NO₂ detection. The gas exposed uppermost layer of the multi layer device is screened from the SiC by the intermediate layers leading to a p-type nature with a higher concentration of charge carriers and therefore, a lower gas response. The single layer graphene device is thought to undergo an n-p transition upon exposure to increasing concentrations of NO₂ indicated by a change in response direction. This transition is likely to be due to the transfer of electrons to NO₂ making holes the majority carriers.     

Enhanced H2S sensing characteristics of Pt doped SnO2 nanofibers sensors with micro heater

Gas sensors were designed and fabricated using oxide nanofibers as the sensing materials on micro platforms using micromachining technology. Pure and Pt doped SnO₂ nanofibers were prepared by electrospinning and their H₂S gas sensing characteristics were subsequently investigated. The sensing temperatures of 300 and 500 °C could be attained at the heater powers of 36 and 94 mW, respectively, and the sensors showed high and fast responses to H₂S. The responses of 0.08 wt% Pt doped SnO₂ nanofibers to 4-20 ppm H₂S, were 25.9-40.6 times higher than those of pure SnO₂ nanofibers. The gas sensing characteristics were discussed in relation to the catalytic promotion effect of Pt, nano-scale morphology of electrospun nanofibers, and sensor platform using micro heater.     

The effect of La2CuO4 sensing electrode thickness on a potentiometric NOx sensor response

In order to further understand the different contributions to NO_x sensing mechanism as well as the importance of electrode geometry, solid state potentiometric sensors with varying La₂CuO₄ sensing electrode thicknesses were studied. These sensors (with a Pt counter electrode) showed a dependence of NO₂ sensitivity which decreased with increasing thickness in the temperature range of 550-650 °C. They also showed NO sensitivity that was independent of thickness at 400 °C and 600 °C, but varied at temperatures between. This behavior was attributed to multiple mechanistic contributions explained by Differential Electrode Equilibria.     

Electrical response of Sm2O3-doped SnO2 to C2H2 and effect of humidity interference

Pure and Sm₂O₃-doped SnO₂ are prepared through a sol–gel method and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The sensor based on 6 wt% Sm₂O₃-doped SnO₂ displays superior response at an operating temperature of 180 °C, and the response magnitude to 1000 ppm C₂H₂ can reach 63.8, which is 16.8 times larger than that of pure SnO₂. This sensor also shows high sensitivity under various humidity conditions. These results make our product be a good candidate in fabricating C₂H₂ sensors.     

基于TDLAS的二氧化碳检测技术综述

精确检测CO_(2)气体浓度、控制CO_(2)气体排放是治理大气温室效应过程中最重要的部分。可调谐半导体激光吸收光谱(TDLAS)因具有高灵敏度和高可靠性的特点,广泛应用于在线监测、微量气体检测等方面。分析了TDLAS测量气体浓度的基本原理,重点介绍了直接吸收法和波长调制法并比较了两种方法的优缺点,随后介绍了近几十年来国内外应用TDLAS技术在气体检测方面取得的研究进展。最后总结了基于TDLAS的二氧化碳气体检测技术,并对其未来应用进行了展望。     

TOUGH+CO2: A multiphase fluid-flow simulator for CO2 geologic sequestration in saline aquifers

TOUGH+CO₂ is a new simulator for modeling of CO₂ geologic sequestration in saline aquifers. It is a member of TOUGH+, the successor to the TOUGH2 family of codes for multicomponent, multiphase fluid and heat flow simulation. The code accounts for heat and up to 3 mass components, which are partitioned into three possible phases. In the code, the thermodynamics and thermophysical properties of H₂O-NaCl-CO₂ mixtures are determined based on system status and subdivided into six different phase combinations. By solving coupled mass and heat balance equations, TOUGH+CO₂ can model non-isothermal or isothermal CO₂ injection, phase behavior and flow of fluids and heat under typical conditions of temperature, pressure and salinity in CO₂ geologic storage projects. The code takes into account effects of salt precipitation on porosity and permeability changes, and the wettability phenomena. The new simulator inherits all capabilities of TOUGH2 in handling fractured media and using unstructured meshes for complex simulation domains. The code adds additional relative permeability and capillary pressure functions. The FORTRAN 95 OOP architecture and other new language features have been extensively used to enhance memory use and computing efficiency. In addition, a domain decomposition approach has been implemented for parallel simulation. All these features lead to increased computational efficiency, and allow applicability of the code to multi-core/processor parallel computing platforms with excellent scalability.     

Sensing of CO2 at room temperature using work function readout of (hetero-)polysiloxanes sensing layers

Organically modified silicates based on primary amino groups are known to be CO₂ sensitive, as they can undergo a reversible acid base reaction. In order to generate detectable CO₂ signals and to limit the cross-sensitivity to humidity, some sources suggest that these materials should be operated at higher temperatures (50-70 °C). In this paper, a new variant of CO₂ sensing is to be presented, namely a combination of work function readout and organically modified silicates, which yields CO₂ detection even at room temperature. Kelvin probe measurements are used for work function readout. The layers are intended to be used in a “Floating Gate Field Effect Transistors” (FGFETs) sensing platform (mySens) by Micronas. The reversible interaction of CO₂ with spin-coated heteropolysiloxane sensitive layers results in changes of the work function with typical signal heights of 15-20 mV (change from 400 to 4000 ppm CO₂) and response times of only a few minutes. Also, results will be presented regarding variations in the chemical nature of the films. The findings summarized in this paper point towards the possibility of a new room temperature CO₂ sensor, which comprises fast response times and sufficient sensitivity for ambient CO₂ variations.     

Ultrahigh ethanol response of SnO2 nanorods at low working temperature arising from La2O3 loading

The influences of La₂O₃ loading on the ethanol sensing properties of SnO₂ nanorods were investigated. An obvious enhancement of response was obtained. The response of 5 wt% La₂O₃ loaded SnO₂ nanorods was up to 213 for 100 ppm ethanol at low working temperature of 200 °C, while that of pure SnO₂ nanorods is 45.1. The improvement in response might be attributed to the presence of basic sites, which facilitated the dehydrogenation process. While the working temperature was increased to 300 °C, the sensor response decreased to 16 for 100 ppm ethanol. Additionally, the La₂O₃ loaded SnO₂ nanorods sensors showed good selectivity to ethanol over methane and hydrogen. Our results demonstrated that the La₂O₃ loaded SnO₂ nanorods were promising in fabricating high performance ethanol sensors which could work at low temperature.     

Acoustic wave-based NO2 sensor: Ink-jet printed active layer

Microsphere-templated BaCO₃ films with well-defined area were deposited onto quartz crystal microbalances by thermal ink-jet printing, and the devices were characterized with respect to their microstructures and NO₂ sensing characteristics. Highly porous three-dimensional BaCO₃ frameworks with promising sensor characteristics were obtained. The printed thin films exhibited reversible frequency shifts following exposure to NO₂ and subsequent recovery under CO/CO₂ at 400 °C. The feasibility of controlled deposition of complex functional films in controlled patterns is discussed in the context of the direct-write features of ink-jet printing.     

Mid-IR source based on a free-standing microhotplate for autonomous CO2 sensing in indoor applications

The measurement of CO₂ by Non-Dispersive InfraRed absorption (NDIR) is often used as a tracer of human occupancy in confined living spaces. The major constraint of commercial sensors comes from the power consumption of the IR source, which makes them unsuitable for autonomous operation.This paper reports the fabrication and the characterization of a black-body IR source based on a microhotplate micromachined in Si and suitable to work above 650 °C. The use of state-of-the-art MEMS technologies allows to lower the power consumption below 50 mW while ensuring a lifetime well beyond 10 years.The radiance of the microhotplate in the spectral range where CO₂ adsorption takes place indicated that the device works as a quasi-perfect blackbody source providing enough power to drive an autonomous NDIR system for CO₂ detection.     

Tidal breathing model describing end-tidal, alveolar, arterial and mixed venous CO2 and O2

Thermodilution is the current standard for determination of cardiac output. The method is invasive and constitutes a risk for the patient. As an alternative CO₂ rebreathing allows non-invasive cardiac output estimation using Ficks principle. The method relies on estimation of arterial CO₂ partial pressure from end-tidal CO₂ pressure and estimation of mixed venous CO₂ partial pressure from end-tidal CO₂ during rebreathing. Presumably the oxygenation of blood in the lung capillaries increases lung capillary CO₂ pressure due to the Haldane effect, which during rebreathing may result in overestimation of the mixed venous CO₂ pressure. However, the Haldane effect is not discussed in the current literature describing cardiac output estimation using CO₂ rebreathing. The purpose of this study is to construct and verify a compartmental tidal breathing lung model to investigate the physiological mechanisms that influence the CO₂ rebreathing technique. The model simulations show agreement with previous studies describing end-tidal to arterial differences in CO₂ pressure and rebreathing with high and low O₂ fractions in the rebreathing bag. In conclusion the simulations show that caution has to be taken when using end-tidal measurements to estimate CO₂ pressures, especially during rebreathing where the Haldane effect causes mixed venous CO₂ partial pressure to be substantially overestimated.     

Flexible H2 sensor fabricated by layer-by-layer self-assembly of thin films of polypyrrole and modified in situ with Pt nanoparticles

A novel flexible H₂ gas sensor was fabricated by the layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly of a polypyrrole (PPy) thin film on a polyester (PET) substrate. A Pt-based complex was self-assembled in situ on the as-prepared PPy thin film, which was reduced to form a Pt-PPy thin film. Microstructural observations revealed that Pt nanoparticles formed on the surface of the PPy film. The sensitivity of the PPy thin film was improved by the Pt nanoparticles, providing catalytically active sites for H₂ gas molecules. The interfering gas NH₃ affected the limit of detection (LOD) of a targeted H₂ gas in a real-world binary gas mixture. A plausible H₂ gas sensing mechanism involves catalytic effects of Pt particles and the formation of charge carriers in the PPy thin film. The flexible H₂ gas sensor exhibited a strong sensitivity that was greater than that of sensors that were made of Pd-MWCNTs at room temperature.     

Temperature dependent H2S and Cl2 sensing selectivity of Cr2O3 thin films

The conductometric gas sensing characteristics of Cr₂O₃ thin films - prepared by electron-beam deposition of Cr films on quartz substrate followed by oxygen annealing - have been investigated for a host of gases (CH₄, CO, NO₂, Cl₂, NH₃ and H₂S) as a function of operating temperature (between 30 and 300 °C) and gas concentration (1-30 ppm). We demonstrate that these films are highly selective to H₂S at an operating temperature of 100 °C, while at 220 °C the films become selective to Cl₂. This result has been explained on the basis of depletion of chemisorbed oxygen from the surface of films due to temperature and/or interaction with Cl₂/H₂S, which is supported experimentally by carrying out the work function measurements using Kelvin probe method. The temperature dependent selectivity of Cr₂O₃ thin films provides a flexibility to use same film for the sensing of Cl₂ as well as H₂S.     

The influence of catalytic activity on the response of Pt/SnO2 gas sensors to carbon monoxide and hydrogen

The article presents the results of research studies on ceramics SnO₂ sensors with Pt catalysts. The role of catalysis in gas sensing mechanisms was investigated. In order to obtain samples with different catalytic activity but with identical Pt loading, the Pt/SnO₂ catalysts were calcined at different temperatures (400-800 °C). Structural analysis of these samples was performed. Among the sensors manufactured with Pt/SnO₂, the highest sensitivity was shown for the sensor obtained with Pt/SnO₂ sample sintered at 800 °C. The correlation between catalytic activity and sensor sensitivity is given.     

Enhanced H2S sensing characteristics of SnO2 nanowires functionalized with CuO

The CuO-functionalized SnO₂ nanowire (NW) sensors were fabricated by depositing a slurry containing SnO₂ NWs on a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-guided substrate and subsequently dropping Cu nitrate aqueous solution. The CuO coating increased the gas responses to 20 ppm H₂S up to 74-fold. The R_a/R_g value of the CuO-doped SnO₂ NWs to 20 ppm H₂S was as high as 809 at 300 °C, while the cross-gas responses to 5 ppm NO₂, 100 ppm CO, 200 ppm C₂H₅OH, and 100 ppm C₃H₈ were negligibly low (1.5–4.0). Moreover, the 90% response times to H₂S were as short as 1–2 s at 300–400 °C. The selective detection of H₂S and enhancement of the gas response were attributed to the uniform distribution of the sensitizer (CuO) on the surface of the less agglomerated network of the SnO₂ NWs.     

Sensitive amperometric determination of chemical oxygen demand using Ti/Sb-SnO2/PbO2 composite electrode

A novel Ti/Sb-SnO₂/PbO₂ composite electrode was fabricated for COD determination. The new electrode configuration improved the sensitivity of the amperometric method apparently. Effects of common experimental parameters, such as applied potential, pH and concentration of the electrolyte on its analytical performance were investigated. A linear range of 0.5-200 mg L⁻¹ COD and a detection limit (a signal-to-noise ratio of 3) of 0.3 mg L⁻¹ were achieved under optimized conditions. The experiments for detecting COD in model samples and real samples were carried out to evaluate the electrode's performance. The obtained results were in good agreement with those determined by the standard dichromate method, with a relative error less than 12%.     

Optical temperature sensing behavior of enhanced green upconversion emissions from Er-Mo:Yb2Ti2O7 nanophosphor

The Er-Mo:Yb₂Ti₂O₇ nanocrystalline phosphor has been prepared by sol-gel method and used as an optical thermometry. By Mo codoping, the green upconversion (UC) emission intensity increased about 250 times than that of Er:Yb₂Ti₂O₇ under a 976 nm laser diode excitation. It indicates that such green enhancement arises from the high excited state energy transfer (HESET) with the |²F_7/2, ³T₂> state of Yb³⁺-MoO₄²⁻ dimer to the ⁴F_7/2 level of Er³⁺. The fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR) of the two green UC emissions bands was studied as a function of temperature in a range of 290-610 K, and the maximum sensitivity and the temperature resolution were approximately 0.0074 K⁻¹ and 0.1 K, respectively. It suggests that the Er-Mo:Yb₂Ti₂O₇ nanophosphor with a higher green UC emissions efficiency is a promising prototype for applications in optical temperature sensing.