Wear behaviour of an Al–12% Si alloy reinforced with a low volume fraction of SiC particles

Aluminium–silicon alloys reinforced with low volume fractions of SiC particles were prepared by the compocasting process. The wear behaviour of the unreinforced Al–12Si alloy and metal-matrix composites (MMCs) was investigated by using a block-on-ring test at room temperature under dry conditions. The results showed that the addition of a low volume fraction of SiC particles (2–8 vol%) is a very effective way of increasing the wear resistance of the matrix alloy. Metallographic examinations revealed that the wear zone of the Al–12Si alloy consists of both hardened and deformation layers. The depth of the hardened layer depended on the applied load and was in the vicinity of 10–50 μm. The formation of the hardened layer was related to the alignment and redistribution of fragmented eutectic phase to the surface region during sliding wear. Furthermore, the delamination of debris from the hardened layer was responsible for a higher wear loss observed in the Al–12Si alloy. The thickness of the hardened layer formed on the MMC specimens was reduced considerably by the incorporation of fragmented SiC particles. This layer exhibited higher hardness and wear resistance than that developed in the unreinforced alloy.     

SiC particulate dispersed composites of an Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy: Property comparison with parent alloy

Composites have been formed by adding 15 wt.% of SiC dispersoids in the size range of 20–40 μm to Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy (corresponding to the 7075 series). The 7075 aluminium alloy and composites have been subjected to heat treatment in an attempt to optimize their properties. The present paper reports the improvement in the hardness, mechanical and sliding wear resistance properties attained as a result of heat treatment and forming composites. An attempt is made in the paper to understand the mechanism responsible for the improved behaviour of the 7075/SiC aluminium composite over the base alloy through microscopic/metallographic analysis.     

Processing and properties of Al–Li–SiCp composites

Al–Li–SiC_p composites were fabricated by a modified version of the conventional stir casting technique. Composites containing 8, 12 and 18 vol% SiC particles (40 μm) were fabricated. Hardness, tensile and compressive strengths of the unreinforced alloy and composites were determined. Ageing kinetics and effect of ageing on properties were also investigated. Additions of SiC particles increase the hardness, 0.2% proof stress, ultimate tensile strength and elastic modulus of Al–Li–8%SiC and Al–Li–12%SiC composites. In case of the composite reinforced with 18% SiC particles, although the elastic modulus increases the 0.2% proof stress and compressive strength were only marginally higher than the unreinforced alloy and lower than those of Al–Li–8%SiC and Al–Li–12%SiC composites. Clustering of SiC particles appears to be responsible for reduced the strength of Al–Li–18%SiC composite. The fracture surface of unreinforced 8090 Al-Li alloy (8090Al) shows a dimpled structure, indicating ductile mode of failure. Fracture in composites occurs by a mixed mode, giving rise to a bimodal distribution of dimples in the fracture surface. Cleavage of SiC particles was also observed in the fracture surface of composites. Composites show higher peak hardness and lower peak ageing time compared with unreinforced 8090Al alloy. Macro- and microhardness increase significantly after peak ageing. Ageing also results in considerable improvement in strength of the unreinforced 8090Al alloy and its composites. This is attributed to formation of δ^′ (Al₃Li) and S^′ (Al₂CuMg) precipitates during ageing. Per cent elongation, however, decreases due to age hardening. Al–Li–12%SiC, which shows marginally lower UTS and compressive strength than the Al–Li–8%SiC composite in extruded condition, exhibits higher strength than Al–Li–8%SiC in peak-aged condition.     

Microstructure and grain refining performance of Al–5Ti–1B master alloy prepared under high-intensity ultrasound

The microstructure and grain refining performance of an Al–5Ti–1B master alloy prepared under high-intensity ultrasound were investigated. With applying continuous high-intensity ultrasound vibrations in the reaction, the Al–5Ti–1B master alloy is successfully manufactured in 4 min. Compared with conventional Al–5Ti–1B master alloys, the mean size and the size spread of TiB₂ particles in the prepared master alloy are evidently decreased. The narrower particle size spread significantly improves the grain refining performance of the master alloy, which proves the calculation predictions by Greer. Consequently, the limiting grain size of commercial purity aluminium refined by the new master alloy can reach 45 μm.     

Processing and properties of Al–Li–SiCp composites

Al–Li–SiC_p composites were fabricated by a modified version of the conventional stir casting technique. Composites containing 8, 12 and 18 vol% SiC particles (40 mm) were fabricated. Hardness, tensile and compressive strengths of the unreinforced alloy and composites were determined. Ageing kinetics and effect of ageing on properties were also investigated. Additions of SiC particles increase the hardness, 0.2% proof stress, ultimate tensile strength and elastic modulus of Al–Li–8%SiC and Al–Li–12%SiC composites. In case of the composite reinforced with 18% SiC particles, although the elastic modulus increases the 0.2% proof stress and compressive strength were only marginally higher than the unreinforced alloy and lower than those of Al–Li–8%SiC and Al–Li–12%SiC composites. Clustering of SiC particles appears to be responsible for reduced the strength of Al–Li–18%SiC composite. The fracture surface of unreinforced 8090 Al-Li alloy (8090Al) shows a dimpled structure, indicating ductile mode of failure. Fracture in composites occurs by a mixed mode, giving rise to a bimodal distribution of dimples in the fracture surface. Cleavage of SiC particles was also observed in the fracture surface of composites. Composites show higher peak hardness and lower peak ageing time compared with unreinforced 8090Al alloy. Macroand microhardness increase significantly after peak ageing. Ageing also results in considerable improvement in strength of the unreinforced 8090Al alloy and its composites. This is attributed to formation of δ^' (Al₃Li) and S^' (Al₂CuMg) precipitates during ageing. Per cent elongation, however, decreases due to age hardening. Al–Li–12%SiC, which shows marginally lower UTS and compressive strength than the Al–Li–8%SiC composite in extruded condition, exhibits higher strength than Al–Li–8%SiC in peak-aged condition.     

Fabrication and characterisation of Al–7Si–0.35Mg/fly ash metal matrix composites processed by different stir casting routes

In the present investigation, the effect of three different stir casting routes on the structure and properties of fine fly ash particles (13 μm average particle size) reinforced Al–7Si–0.35Mg alloy composite is evaluated. Among liquid metal stir casting, compocasting (semi solid processing), modified compocasting and modified compocasting followed by squeeze casting routes evaluated, the latter has resulted in a well-dispersed and relatively agglomerate and porosity free fly ash particle dispersed composites. Interfacial reactions between the fly ash particle and the matrix leading to the formation of MgAl₂O₄ spinel and iron intermetallics are more in liquid metal stir cast composites than in compocast composites.     

The influence of impurity level and tin addition on the ageing heat treatment of the 356 class alloy

The influence of the addition of 0.5 wt.% Sn to Al–7Si–0.3 Mg alloys (356 and A356) on their ageing behaviour and mechanical properties was evaluated. Adding Sn led to a reduction of the iron rich intermetallics volume fraction, and of hardness. During solution heat treatment, Mg went into the solid solution, and Sn particles grew by competitive growth, concentrating at phase boundaries and interfaces. During aging β″ and Si precipitated. In the alloys with Sn, the β″ precipitation was accelerated and its hardening effect was greater, whereas the Si precipitation did not changed significantly. The mechanical properties of the A356 alloy were compatible with the hardening achieved during the heat treatment and to the amount of defects (pores) present in the microstructure. The yield strength and elongation of the A356 + 0.5% Sn alloy decreased after solution heat treatment and with increasing ageing temperature. These detrimental effects were minimized by treating this alloy in the T5 condition at 150 °C.     

Effect of artificial ageing on the hardness of cast ZA-27/graphite particulate composites

The aim of this present investigation is to study the effect of artificial ageing on the hardness of cast ZA-27 zinc-aluminium alloy/graphite particulate composites containing graphite particles of size 90–150 μm and of contents ranging from 0% to 5% by weight. The age-hardening characteristics of the unreinforced ZA-27 alloy as well as of the graphite-reinforced composite materials were determined using hardness measurements. The ageing temperatures were 75°C, 100°C and 125°C for ageing durations of 6, 12 and 18 hours respectively. The results show that for any particular graphite content and ageing temperature, hardness seems to increase monotonically with ageing time, although it probably tends towards an asymptotic value. For the non-aged composites, graphite content plays a significant role in determining their hardness values, whereas for all the aged composites, the effect of graphite content on hardness is not so marked.     

Heat treatment and wear characteristics of Al/SiCp composites fabricated by duplex process

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of alloying elements and heat treatment on the microstructures, wear resistance, and heat resistance of Al–Si–Cu–Mg–(Ni)/SiC_p composites fabricated by a duplex process that consists of squeeze infiltration (1st step) followed by squeeze casting (2nd step). This duplex process produces a homogeneous distribution of SiC_p in Al alloy. The hardness of the composites increased with decrease in SiC_p size, and also with Ni addition in both the as-cast and the as-aged specimens. Compared with 5 and 10 μm SiC_p reinforced Al composites, the aging time to obtain the peak hardness was shortened for 3 μm SiC_p reinforced Al composite, because of higher density dislocations on the periphery of SiC_p in the matrix. However, the Al composite reinforced with 10 μm SiC_p was found to have the lowest wear amount as compared with 3 and 5 μm SiC_p composites. The amount of wear in Al/SiC_p composites decreased with increase of the sliding speed because abrasive wear occurred under low sliding speed and block-type wear debris occurred under high sliding speed.     

Effect of T6 heat treatment on damping characteristics of Al/RHA composites

In the present work, effect of T6 heat treatment on the damping behaviour of aluminum/rice husk ash (RHA) composites fabricated by vortex method was studied using dynamic mechanical analyser (DMA) at frequencies ranging from 1 Hz to 25 Hz at room temperature under three-point bending test mode. The matrix material for the present work was A356·2 and reinforced with different weight % of 4, 6 and 8 rice husk ash particles. It was observed that composite exhibits high damping capacities than unreinforced alloy and increases with increase in weight % and the storage modulus increases with the addition of RHA particles but decreases with the increase in weight %. The heat treated composites exhibit higher damping capacity than the composites without heat treatment and increases with the increase in weight % of the reinforcement and loss in the storage modulus was observed and further decreases with the increase in the weight % of reinforcement. The related mechanisms were also discussed.     

Effect of particle size on fatigue behaviour in SiC particulate-reinforced aluminium alloy composites

The effect of particle size on rotary bending fatigue behaviour was studied for powder metallurgy 2024 aluminium alloy composites reinforced with 10 wt% silicon carbide particles (SiC_p ). Average particle sizes of 5, 20 and 60 μm were evaluated. Particle size had a significant influence on fatigue strength, indicating an increased fatigue strength with decreasing particle size. The composite with 5 μm SiC particles showed higher fatigue strength than the unreinforced alloy. The incorporation of 20 μm SiC particles led to an increase in fatigue strength at a high stress level, but the improvement diminished with decreasing stress level, and a slightly decreased fatigue strength was observed at low stress level, as compared with the unreinforced alloy. The composite with 60 μm SiC particles exhibited a considerable decrease in fatigue strength. Fatigue cracks initiated at several different microstructural features, e.g. surface defects, inclusions and particle–matrix interfaces, and crack initiation was considerably affected by particle size. Fatigue strength was found to depend strongly on the resistance to crack initiation, because there was no discernible difference in small crack growth between the unreinforced alloy and the composites, particularly at a low maximum stress intensity factor.     

Corrosion investigation of zinc−aluminum alloy matrix (ZA-27) reinforced with alumina (Al2O3) and fly ash

In this study, zinc?aluminum alloy (ZA-27) matrix composites reinforced by different weight fractions of fly ash or alumina (Al₂O₃) were produced using the traditional stir casting technique. The corrosion behaviors of both unreinforced alloy and reinforced composites were examined using direct current polarization (DCP) test in a simulated sea solution (3.5 wt.% NaCl). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) were used to examine the morphology of the composites’ surface before and after corrosion tests. The results of corrosion revealed that reinforcing ZA-27 alloy by fly ash or Al₂O₃ particles decreases its tendency to uniform corrosion due to the formation of weak microgalvanic couple between matrix and reinforcement particles. The fly ash and alumina (Al₂O₃) particles have protected the matrix material from pits formation at early stage of polarization. However, once these pits are formed, they grow faster. Positive hysteresis of the polarization curves implies that the salt layer breakdown and matrix dissolution overshadow surface passivation during the reverse scan. The electrochemical results are consistent with the pits’ morphology of the corroded composite. Composites with fly ash reinforcements have autocatalytic pits, whereas composites with alumina (Al₂O₃) reinforcements have shallow pits.     

Effect of microarc oxidised layer thickness on plain fatigue and fretting fatigue behaviour of Al–Mg–Si alloy

The objective of this work was to investigate the performance of microarc oxide coatings of two different thicknesses (40 and 100 μm) on Al–Mg–Si alloy samples under plain fatigue and fretting fatigue loadings. Tensile residual stress present in the substrate of 40 μm thick coated samples induced early crack initiation in the substrate and so their plain fatigue lives were shorter than those of untreated specimens. Presence of more pores and tensile surface residual stress in 100 μm thick coated samples caused early crack initiation at the surface leading to their inferior plain fatigue lives compared with 40 μm thick coated samples. While the differences between the lives of coated and uncoated specimens were significant under plain fatigue loading, this was not the case under fretting fatigue loading. This may be attributed to relatively higher surface hardness of coated specimens. The performance of 40 μm thick coated samples was better than that of 100 μm thick coated specimens under both plain fatigue and fretting fatigue loadings.     

Investigation on mechanical properties and tribological behaviour of stir cast LM13 aluminium alloy based particulate hybrid composites

LM13 aluminium alloy with boron carbide (0 wt.%–7.5 wt.%) and fly ash (2.5 wt.%) reinforced particulate hybrid composites were fabricated using liquid metallurgy route. Microstructure and mechanical properties viz., hardness, ultimate tensile strength and ductility were investigated. Wear behaviour of composites was tested by varying sliding distance and load. Fracture surface and worn surface of composites were examined using field emission scanning electron microscope. Microstructure of hybrid composites revealed uniform dispersion of particles in LM13 aluminium alloy. Hardness and tensile strength of composites increased with increasing wt.% of boron carbide and fly ash particles. Wear test results showed that addition of particles significantly decreased the weight loss and coefficient of friction. Also cumulative weight loss decreased up to 47.2 % for 10 wt.% of hybrid composites as compared to LM13 aluminium alloy. Fracture surface of composites showed dimples with particle cracking on the surface. Worn surface of LM13 aluminium alloy showed continuous grooves due to ploughing with delamination. However, worn surface of composites showed fine grooves due to the presence of hard reinforcements on the surface. Boron carbide and fly ash reinforced LM13 aluminium hybrid composites exhibited superior mechanical properties with excellent wear resistance as compared to LM13 aluminium alloy.     

Tribological Properties of A356.2/RHA Composites

Rice husk ash (RHA) is one of the industrial waste byproduct available abundantly in the world. In the present work, an attempt is made to incorporate the RHA particles in the molten aluminum A356.2 alloy. The RHA particles were added into the matrix melt by creating a vortex with the help of a mechanical stirrer and the melt temperature was maintained between 800 and 850 C. Dry sliding wear experiments were performed in a pin on disc wear equipment against a chromium steel disc at 30 C. Scanning electron microscopy is used to study the wear characteristics of the unreinforced Al alloy and the A356.2/RHA composites. From the experiments it is observed that the composites exhibit higher hardness and resistance to wear as compared to unreinforced Al alloy.     

Dry wear properties of A356-SiC particle reinforced MMCs produced by two melting routes

SiC particle reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) were produced by a common liquid phase technique in two melting routes. In the first route, 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol% SiC reinforced A356-based MMCs were produced. In the second route, an Alcan A356 + 20 vol% SiC composite was diluted to obtain 5, 10, 15 and 20 vol% SiC MMCs. In both cases the average particle size was 12 μm. The composites that produced by two different routes were aimed to compare the dry wear resistance properties. A dry ball-on disk wear test was carried out for both groups of MMCs and their matrix materials. The tests were performed against a WC ball, 4.6 mm in diameter, at room temperature and in laboratory air conditions with a relative humidity of 40–60%. Sliding speed was chosen as 0.4 m/s and normal loads of 1, 2, 3 and 5 N were employed. The sliding distance was kept at 1000 m. The wear damage on the specimens was evaluated via measurement of wear depth and diameter. A complete wear microstructural characterization was carried out via scanning electron microscopy. The wear behaviors were recorded nearly similar for both groups of composites. Diluted samples showed lower friction coefficient values compared with the friction coefficient values of the vortex-produced composites. This was attributed poor bonding between matrix and particles in the vortex-produced composites associated with high porosities. But, in general, diluted Alcan composites showed slightly lower wear rate relationship with the particle volume percent and applied load when compared with vortex produced materials.     

Adsorption of reactive dyes from aqueous solutions by fly ash: kinetic and equilibrium studies

Adsorption kinetic and equilibrium studies of three reactive dyes namely, Remazol Brillant Blue (RB), Remazol Red 133 (RR) and Rifacion Yellow HED (RY) from aqueous solutions at various initial dye concentration (100–500 mg/l), pH (2–8), particle size (45–112.5 μm) and temperature (293–323 K) on fly ash (FA) were studied in a batch mode operation. The adsorbent was characterized with using several methods such as SEM, XRD and FTIR. Adsorption of RB reactive dye was found to be pH dependent but both RR and RY reactive dyes were not. The result showed that the amount adsorbed of the reactive dyes increased with increasing initial dye concentration and contact time. Batch kinetic data from experimental investigations on the removal of reactive dyes from aqueous solutions using FA have been well described by external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion models. It was found that external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion had rate limiting affects on the removal process. This was attributed to the relatively simple macropore structure of FA particles. The adsorption data fitted well with Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The optimum conditions for removal of the reactive dyes were 100 mg/l initial dye concentration, 0.6 g/100 ml adsorbent dose, temperature of 293 K, 45 μm particle size, pH 6 and agitation speed of 250 rpm, respectively. The values of Langmuir and Freundlich constants were found to increase with increasing temperature in the range 135–180 and 15–34 mg/g for RB, 47–86 and 1.9–3.7 mg/g for RR and 37–61 and 3.0–3.6 mg/g for RY reactive dyes, respectively. Different thermodynamic parameters viz., changes in standard free energy, enthalpy and entropy were evaluated and it was found that the reaction was spontaneous and endothermic in nature.     

Aluminum Dross Particles as Cost Effective Reinforcement for Aluminum Composites

In this work, the potential of Finely powdered aluminum dross by-product (d₅₀ = 67 (μm) as a cost effective reinforcement in discontinuously reinforced aluminum matrix composites (A356) was investigated on the basis of quality-cost modeling. Using a standard rheocasting procedure, samples of composite material were obtained consisting of 20 vol.% of as-received and laboratory processed grades of dross particles which differed mainly in particle size and level of impurities.

Inspection of the tensile properties of these different composite materials showed that a slight improvement in strength over the unreinforced matrix is achievable only by the introduction of fine dross particles with an average particle size less than 10 μm. In composites with larger dross particles the strengthening effect was not observed. In contrast, evaluation of the wear properties demonstrated that the introduction of coarse and as-received dross particles in an aluminum matrix results in a significant improvement in the wear resistance of the composite material. However, in that case, there is a sacrifice in strength. Quality-cost modeling of these two grades of dross reinforced aluminum based composites indicates that both may be applicable for some less critical engineered and wear resistant components, with possible widespread application in the transportation industry.     

Thermally conducting aluminum nitride polymer-matrix composites

Thermally conducting, but electrically insulating, polymer-matrix composites that exhibit low values of the dielectric constant and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) are needed for electronic packaging. For developing such composites, this work used aluminum nitride whiskers (and/or particles) and/or silicon carbide whiskers as fillers(s) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or epoxy as matrix. The highest thermal conductivity of 11.5 W/(m K) was attained by using PVDF, AlN whiskers and AlN particles (7 μm), such that the total filler volume fraction was 60% and the AlN whisker–particle ratio was 1:25.7. When AlN particles were used as the sole filler, the thermal conductivity was highest for the largest AlN particle size (115 μm), but the porosity increased with increasing AlN particle size. The thermal conductivity of AlN particle epoxy-matrix composite was increased by up to 97% by silane surface treatment of the particles prior to composite fabrication. The increase in thermal conductivity is due to decrease in the filler–matrix thermal contact resistance through the improvement of the interface between matrix and particles. At 60 vol.% silane-treated AlN particles only, the thermal conductivity of epoxy-matrix composite reached 11.0 W/(m K). The dielectric constant was quite high (up to 10 at 2 MHz) for the PVDF composites. The change of the filler from AlN to SiC greatly increased the dielectric constant. Combined use of whiskers and particles in an appropriate ratio gave composites with higher thermal conductivity and low CTE than the use of whiskers alone or particles alone. However, AlN addition caused the tensile strength, modulus and ductility to decrease from the values of the neat polymer, and caused degradation after water immersion.     

Correlation between the microstructure and the electromagnetic properties of carbonyl iron filled polymer composites

Electromagnetic properties of polymer composites based on different types of carbonyl iron (CI) are investigated in the frequency range from 1 MHz to 10 GHz. A significant difference in the high frequency permeability of composites filled with primary and processed CI powders is revealed, although the chemical composition and particle size distribution of these powders show small difference. Composites based on processed CI exhibit two regions of magnetic dispersion and higher absolute values of permeability and permittivity in the radio-frequency (RF) band. The observed differences are attributed to the microstructure of particles; namely, these differences depend on whether or not the particles are characterized by “onionlike” multilayered morphology. Electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses show structural changes in the processed CI, which are responsible for the variety of electromagnetic properties of the composites.