Explanations for selection decisions: Applicants' reactions to informational and sensitivity features of explanations.

The effects of explanation features on participants' reactions toward a selection decision were examined in 2 studies. In Study 1, students were provided with scenarios where informational (justification, procedural, personal, control) and sensitivity (sensitive or control) features of explanations were crossed with a selection decision to assess their effects on 3 applicant reactions: process fairness, self-perceptions, and organizational perceptions. In general, personal information enhanced fairness and organizational perceptions but harmed the reported self-perceptions of students role-playing rejected applicants. Explanations given in a sensitive manner accentuated these effects. Study 2 used a similar methodology to assess the effects of giving different types of procedural information. Self-reported reactions were influenced by the interactive effects of the type of procedural information provided and the selection decision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward understanding why fairness matters: The influence of mortality salience on reactions to procedural fairness.

This article focuses on the question of why fairness matters to people. On the basis of fairness heuristic theory, the authors argue that people especially need fairness when they are uncertain about things that are important to them. Following terror management theory, the authors focus on a basic kind of human uncertainty: fear of death. Integrating these two theoretical frameworks, it is proposed that thinking about their mortality should make fairness a more important issue to people. The findings of three experiments support the authors' line of reasoning: Asking participants to think about their mortality led to stronger fair process effects (positive effects of perceived procedural fairness on subsequent reactions) than not asking them to think about mortality. It is argued that these findings suggest that fairness especially matters to people when they are uncertain about fundamental aspects of human life such as human mortality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Uncertainty management: The influence of uncertainty salience on reactions to perceived procedural fairness.

On the basis of fairness heuristic theory, it is argued in this article that people especially need fairness when they are reminded about aspects of their lives that make them uncertain. It is therefore proposed that thinking about uncertainty should make fairness a more important issue to people. The findings of 3 experiments support this line of reasoning: Asking (vs. not asking) participants 2 questions that solicited their thoughts and feelings of being uncertain led to stronger effects of perceived procedural fairness on participants' affective reactions toward the way they were treated. It is argued that these findings suggest that fairness matters to people especially when they are trying to deal with things that make them uncertain. An implication of the current findings therefore may be that fairness is important to people because it gives them an opportunity to manage uncertain aspects of their lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An integrative framework for explaining reactions to decisions: Interactive effects of outcomes and procedures.

The authors suggest that procedural and distributive factors interactively combine to influence individuals' reactions to their encounters with other people, groups, and organizations. Results from 45 independent samples (reviewed herein) show that (1) level of procedural justice is more positively related to individuals' reactions when outcome fairness or valence is relatively low and (2) level of outcome fairness or valence is more positively related to individuals' reactions when procedural justice is relatively low. They present various explanations of the interaction effect. Theoretical progress may be achieved through future efforts to delineate the conditions under which each of the explanations is more versus less likely to account for the interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A method for empirically assessing volunteer selection effects: Recruitment procedures and responses to erotica.

Examined whether 58 male and 47 female undergraduates who were recruited for a study on erotica responded in a similar manner to an erotic film as 29 male and 26 female undergraduates who were recruited for research on a neutral topic, personality questionnaires. In Part 1 of the study, all Ss answered questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a sexual opinion survey, that assessed personality and demographic characteristics. In Part 2, Ss watched the erotic movie and completed a feelings scale. Findings indicate that conclusions about prior sexual experience, sexual opinions, and affective responses to the erotic film were qualified by recruitment condition. Ss who volunteered for the experiment on erotica were more sexually experienced and, for women, were significantly more erotophilic than Ss who volunteered for the research on personality questionnaires. Results suggest that volunteer selection can have an important effect on experimental results and demonstrate a method for assessing the extent of these effects. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of violations of assumptions underlying the t test.

There has been an increase lately in the use of the frequently less powerful nonparametric statistical techniques particularly when the data do not meet the assumptions for t or analysis of variance. By means of empirical analysis and a mathematical frame of reference it is demonstrated that the probability values for both t, and by generalization for F are scarcely influenced when the data do not meet the required assumptions. One exception to this conclusion is the situation where there exists unequal variances and unequal sample sizes. In this case the probability values will be quite different from the nominal values. 22 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The paradox of group-based guilt: Modes of national identification, conflict vehemence, and reactions to the in-group's moral violations.

The authors examined the relationships between 2 modes of national identification (attachment to the in-group and the in-group's glorification) and reactions to the in-group's moral violations among Israeli students. Data were collected during a period of relative calm in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as well as during a period of great intensification of this conflict. As expected, in Study 1, the 2 modes of identification had contrasting relationships with group-based guilt: Attachment was positively related whereas glorification was negatively related to group-based guilt for in-group's past infractions. Glorification suppressed the attachment effect but not vice versa. Both relationships were mediated by the use of exonerating cognitions. In Study 2, group-based guilt for the in-group's current wrongdoings was increased by priming critical rather than conventional attachment to the in-group, suggesting a causal effect of mode of identification on the experience of negative group-based emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selection fairness information and applicant reactions: A longitudinal field study.

Although laboratory studies have found that selection information can affect applicant perceptions, this has not been tested in the field. The authors followed 2 cohorts of police applicants (N = 274) in a longitudinal study to examine the relationship between information, applicant perceptions, and behavior (e.g., turnover). Information was related to perceived fairness measured at the time of testing and 1 month later when applicants received their results. Information moderated the relationship between outcome favorability and test-taking self-efficacy among African Americans but not among Whites. Information was not related to the behavioral measures. The discussion focuses on why certain findings from previous studies were not replicated and on the use of information when applicants have an investment in getting a job. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of interview and situational performance procedures to the selection of supervisory personnel.

2 groups of supervisors (each N = 40), selected to be as similar as possible on a set of control predictor variables "known to be predictive of supervisory performance" (basic abilities test score, supervisory practices score, age, service, job level) and to be maximally different on criterion scores of supervisory effectiveness ratings, were used to try out 5 experimental supervisory performance predictors: panel interview, individual interview, group discussion problem, role playing situation, and small-job management. Each group was divided into a high and low subgroup on the basis of the control predictor variables. The predictor battery validity increased from an average of .27 for the control predictors alone to .30-.34 when various of the experimental predictors were added. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matrix effects and the performance and selection of quality-control procedures to monitor PO2 measurements

We have assessed how variation in the matrix of control materials would affect error detection and false-rejection characteristics of quality-control (QC) procedures used to monitor PO2 in blood gas measurements. To determine the expected QC performance, we generated power curves for S(mat)/S(meas) ratios of 0.0-4.0. These curves were used to estimate the probabilities of rejecting analytical runs having medically important errors, calculated from the quality required by the CLIA '88 proficiency testing criterion and the precision and accuracy expected for a typical analytical system. When S(mat)/S(meas) ratios are low, the effects of matrix on QC performance are not serious, permitting selections of QC procedures based on simple power curves for a single component of variation. As S(mat)/S(meas) ratios increase, single-rule procedures generally show a loss in error detection, whereas multirule procedures, including the 3(1)s control rule, show an increase in false rejections. An optimized QC design is presented.     

A longitudinal analysis of organizational fairness: An examination of reactions to tenure and promotion decisions.

Most organizational justice research takes a cross-sectional approach to examining the relationship between perceived fairness and individuals' attitudes. This study examines the effect of procedural and distributive justice over time. It is suggested that individuals acquire more information and experience with procedures and outcomes over time. These changes in information and experience affect the influence of procedural and distributive justice on organizational attitudes. Faculty perceptions of tenure and promotion decisions were assessed 3 times (preallocation, short-term postallocation, long-term postallocation) over a 2-year period. Results generally supported the hypotheses. Procedural justice was most influential prior to and soon after outcome decisions were made. Distributive justice was most influential 1 year later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of social comparisons of outcomes and procedures on fairness judgments.

This study investigated the effects of social comparisons of outcomes and procedures on fairness judgments. Participants performed 1 of 2 tasks with which they could earn a bonus. Three variables were manipulated: participant's control over task choice (present vs. absent), comparison other's control over task choice (present vs. absent), and comparison other's outcome (high vs. low). All participants were informed that they themselves earned a low outcome. The dependent variable was participants' judgments of the fairness of the way in which the experiment was conducted. Two 2-way interactions were predicted and found, one involving the participant's control and the comparison other's outcome and the other involving the participant's control and the comparison other's control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A trickle-down model of organizational justice: Relating employees' and customers' perceptions of and reactions to fairness.

This study developed and tested a trickle-down model of organizational justice that hypothesized that employees' perceptions of fairness should affect their attitudes toward the organization, subsequently influencing their behaviors toward customers. In turn, customers should interpret these behaviors as signals of fair treatment, causing them to react positively to both the employee and the organization. The model was tested on a sample of 187 instructors and their students. The results revealed that instructors who perceived high distributive and procedural justice reported higher organizational commitment. In turn, their students reported higher levels of instructor effort, prosocial behaviors, and fairness, as well as more positive reactions to the instructor. Overall, the results imply that fair treatment of employees has important organizational consequences because of customers' attitudes and future intentions toward key service employees. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of trust in authority and procedural fairness on cooperation.

The present research examined the effect of procedural fairness and trust in an authority on people's willingness to cooperate with the authority across a wide range of social situations. Prior research has shown that the presence of information about whether an authority can be trusted moderates the effect of procedural fairness. If no trust information is available, procedural fairness influences people's reactions. This is not the case when information about the trustworthiness of the authority is present. In the present article, it is argued that information about whether the authority can or cannot be trusted may also moderate the effect of procedural fairness in predicting levels of cooperation. Assuming that the use of fair procedures by authorities that cannot be trusted is less influential than is the enactment of procedures by trustworthy authorities, it is predicted that trust in authority moderates the influence of procedural fairness on cooperation in such a way that procedural fairness has a positive effect on cooperation primarily when trust in authority is high. Results from 4 studies (2 experimental studies and 2 field studies) provide supportive evidence for this interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internship selection and early acceptance procedures: Students' evaluation.

We surveyed 192 graduate students in clinical psychology for the effects on predoctoral internship selection strategy of early acceptance procedures. Results showed a generally negative emotional response with strategy changes by students toward greater conservatism. We identified a subgroup that seemed to experience these effects more intensely. Implications of these findings for future selection procedures are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity, fairness, and group differences: Tough questions for selection testing.

Selection tests, such as those used for college admissions, present multiple dilemmas for psychometricians, who grapple with intractable problems in measurement, and the lay public, whose lives are affected by test scores they often do not understand or trust. Criterion studies utilize convenient criteria that have little meaningful significance, such as grades, and the validity coefficients are necessarily low because of range restrictions and the low reliability of grades. Both supporters and detractors of college admissions tests are correct in their assessment: College admissions tests can account for only a small percentage of the variance in success in school and in life, but even a small reduction of variance substantially reduces uncertainty and improves admissions decisions. Admissions testing can and should be improved. Numerous suggestions for improving admissions testing are presented, including ways to reduce group differences without sacrificing construct validity. The effect of the suggested changes on predictive validity is an empirical question and a question about fairness and values. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of authority power in explaining procedural fairness effects.

Building on fairness heuristic theory, fairness theory, and trust development models, we argue that unfairly enacted procedures decrease followers' trust in the authority particularly when authorities have high power over their followers. Moreover, we expected trust to mediate procedural fairness effects on followers' attitudes (authorities' legitimacy and charisma attributed to authorities) and organizational citizenship behavior. Procedural fairness effects on these variables, as mediated by trust, should therefore also be stronger when authority power is high. The results of a single- and multisource field study and a laboratory experiment supported these predictions. These studies support the role of authority power as a theoretically and practically relevant moderator of procedural fairness effects and show that its effectiveness is explained through trust in authorities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Job context, selection decision outcome, and the perceived fairness of selection tests: Biodata as an illustrative case.

S. W. Gilliland (1993) has proposed a model of perceived selection system fairness to help understand applicants' prehire and posthire behavior. The present study aimed to verify and extend his framework by investigating the role of job context in the formation of fairness perceptions of biodata. A sample of 255 students (108 men, 147 women) completed an operational biodata instrument, believing that it would be used to hire persons for either international, local, or unspecified entry-level managerial positions. Participants were then presented with outcome information (selected or rejected for further consideration). Consistent support was found for the research hypotheses derived from the Gilliland model. Participants' perceptions of the fairness and job relatedness of biodata were affected by the selection context and decision outcome. The importance of considering selection context in assessments of perceived test fairness is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achieving fairness in the face of competing concerns: The different effects of individual and group characteristics.

Investigated preferences among allocation procedures available for use by those distributing rewards for individual performance in a group effort. It was hypothesized that allocators would try to balance the payoff distribution in response to all available information about the individual members. A target person's level of contribution to the group effort and level of financial need were manipulated in questionnaires distributed to 304 undergraduates. Results show a main effect for both individual characteristics but no interaction between them, thereby supporting the hypothesis of independent additive effects. Whether group characteristics would serve only to modify the effects of the individual characteristics, was tested by manipulating 2 group characteristics: morale and task outcome. As predicted, no main effects for either group level variable emerged. Further, the effect of contribution was greater under failure than success and under low than high morale. The effect of need was greater under low morale but only for female allocators. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Audiotape and videotape procedures: A study of subjects' reactions.

48 undergraduate females were recorded on audiotape or videotape (based on scores from Gendlin's Post-Focusing Questionnaire) while engaging in affect simulation and presented with an immediate replay. Ratings of desirability, productivity, and discomfort revealed that (a) various media experiences were described in neutral terms, (b) procedure accounted for differential ratings, (c) experiencing level did not account for differential reactions, (d) differences in medium did not affect the degree of discomfort, and (e) medium was a determinant of desirability and productivity ratings only as it interacted with procedure. Results contradict previous studies, and an instructional/self-learning model is proposed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)