Survey of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and oligomers in polyethylene terephthalate food-packaging materials

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is frequently used as a packaging material for beverage bottles, fruit and vegetable trays, and egg crates in Japan. Levels of formaldehyde (FA), acetaldehyde (AA) and PET oligomers in various PET food packaging were determined. PET samples were initially dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to derivatize formaldehyde and acetaldehyde to their dinitrophenylhydrazones. The stable derivatives along with the oligomers were analysed using HPLC with ultraviolet light detection at 360 and 254 nm, respectively. The PET pellets contained 3.5-12.4 µg g^-1 AA and 4.0-7.2 mg g^-1 oligomers, while FA was below the determination limit. FA, AA and oligomer levels in Japanese bottles were 0.6-3.0 µg g^-1, 8.4-25.7 µg g^-1 and 5.0-8.7 mg g^-1, ND-1.6 µg g^-1, 5.0-13.1 µg g^-1 and 4.9-8.2 mg g^-1 in French and Italian bottles, and ND-1.2 µg g^-1, 9.1-18.7 µg g^-1 and 5.6-8.0 mg g^-1 in US and Canadian bottles, respectively. Compared with European bottles, Japanese bottles contain higher FA and AA levels. In sheet-moulding products, their contents were determined as ND-1.1 µg g^-1, 11.5-43.1 µg g^-1 and 4.6-9.2 mg g^-1, respectively. The results show that sheet-moulding products contain lower FA and higher AA in comparison with bottles. FA and AA are considered to be generated from PET during the heating process for moulding the pellets to bottles or sheet-moulding articles and de-aeration during the sheet-moulding process is effective in removing FA. In contrast, the level of the oligomers remains unchanged during the moulding process from pellets to bottles or sheet products.     

Cadmium and mercury in cephalopod molluscs: Estimated weekly intake

Cadmium and mercury concentrations were measured in the flesh and hepatopancreas of different species of cephalopod molluscs (European squid, common octopus, curled octopus, horned octopus, pink cuttlefish, common cuttlefish) in order to establish whether the concentrations exceeded the maximum levels fixed by the European Commission. In hepatopancreas, the levels of cadmium were substantially higher than those in flesh (flesh 0.11-0.87 µg g^-1 wet weight, hepatopancreas 2.16-9.39 µg g^-1 wet weight), whilst the levels of mercury (flesh 0.13-0.55 µg g^-1 wet weight, hepatopancreas 0.23-0.79 µg g^-1) were approximately double those in flesh. Concentrations exceeding the maximum permitted limit of cadmium were found in 39.8 and 41.0% of common octopus and pink cuttlefish flesh, respectively. For mercury, concentrations above the limit were found only in octopuses, and precisely in 36.8, 50.0 and 20.0% of flesh samples of common, curled and horned octopus, respectively. In the hepatopancreas, concentrations of cadmium and mercury were above the proposed limits in all the samples examined. The estimated weekly intake of between 0.09 and 0.49 µg kg^-1 body weight for cadmium and between 0.05 and 0.24 µg kg^-1 body weight for mercury made only a small contribution to the provisional tolerable weekly intake (cadmium 1.3-7.0%, mercury 1.0-4.8%) set by the WHO.     

Analysis of vinylidene chloride and 1-chlorobutane in foods packaged with polyvinylidene chloride casing films by headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)

A headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method was developed for the simultaneous determination of vinylidene chloride and 1-chlorobutane in foods packaged with polyvinylidene chloride casing films. The solid foodstuff was homogenized with an equal mass of distilled water. The homogenate was incubated for 1 h at 90°C in a sealed headspace vial, and the headspace gas was then analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in selected ion-monitoring mode using a bonded porous polymer-coated capillary column. The recovery rates of vinylidene chloride and 1-chlorobutane in foodstuffs were 94.5-103.9 and 85.8-120.3%, respectively. Among 13 samples tested, vinylidene chloride was detected at 0.001-0.020 µg g^-1 in 11 foodstuffs, and 1-chlorobutane was detected at 0.004-0.040 µg g^-1 in all 13 foodstuffs. Furthermore, vinylidene chloride was detected at 0.04 µg g^-1 in one casing film, and 1-chlorobutane was detected in all casing films. The results indicate that these compounds migrated from the casing films into the foodstuffs.     

Occurrence of tetrodotoxin and paralytic shellfish poisons in a gastropod implicated in food poisoning in southern Taiwan

The toxicity of the gastropod Nassarius papillosus implicated in a food paralytic poisoning incident in Liuchiu Island, Taiwan, in October 2005 is reported. The symptoms of a victim (67 years old) were featured by general paresthesia, paralysis of phalanges and extremities, paralysis, coma, and aphasia. The remaining specimens of shell were assayed for toxicity. The range of specimen toxicity was found to be 63-474 mouse units (MU) per specimen for N. papillosus by a tetrodotoxin (TTX) bioassay. The mean (SD) toxicity of the digestive gland and other portions were 296 ± 120 and 382 ± 156 MU in N. papillosus. The toxin was partially purified from the acidic methanol extract of the gastropod by using a C18 solid-phase extraction column. The eluate was then filtered through a 3000 MW cut-off ultrafree microcentrifuge filter. It was shown that the toxin purified from gastropods analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry contained TTX 42-60 µg g^-1 (about 90%), whereas along with minor paralytic shellfish poisons (PSP) it was 3-6 µg g^-1 (about 10%).     

Australian survey of acrylamide in carbohydrate-based foods

A method was developed and validated for the determination of acrylamide in carbohydrate-based foods. Solid-phase extraction employing a mixed-bed anion and cation exchange cartridge in series with a C18 extraction disk was used to clean-up water extracts of food samples before analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection. The limit of detection was calculated as approximately 25 μg kg^-1 and the limit of reporting was 50 μg kg^-1. The average method recovery for 84 samples from a range of matrices reporting was 99% with a relative standard deviation of 11.2%. A survey was conducted of 112 samples of carbohydrate-based foods composited from 547 products available in the Australian market. The analytical results were used in conjunction with Australian food consumption data derived from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) to prepare preliminary dietary exposure estimates of Australians to acrylamide through only the food groups examined. Mean dietary exposure to acrylamide resulting from consumption of the foods tested, for Australians aged 2 years and above, was estimated as 22-29 µg day^-1 (equivalent to 0.4-0.5 µg kg^-1 bodyweight day^-1) and between 73 and 80 µg day^-1 (1.4 and 1.5 µg kg^-1 bodyweight day^-1) for 95th percentile consumers. Young children (2-6 years) consuming acrylamide-containing foods had a higher acrylamide exposure on a per kilogram bodyweight basis (mean 1.0-1.3 µg kg^-1 bodyweight day^-1). The estimated exposure of Australians to acrylamide is similar to that estimated for other countries.     

Assessment of trichothecene chemotypes of Fusarium culmorum occurring in Europe

Fusarium trichothecenes are a group of fungal toxic metabolites whose synthesis requires the action of gene products from three different genetic loci. We evaluated, both chemically and by PCR assays, 55 isolates of Fusarium culmorum from eight European countries and different host plants for their ability to produce trichothecenes. Specific sequences in the Tri6-Tri5 intergenic region were associated with deoxynivalenol production. Sequences in the Tri3 gene were also associated with deoxynivalenol production and specific primer sets were selected from these sequences to identify 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol or 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotypes. Specific sequences in the Tri5 and Tri7 genes were associated with the nivalenol chemotype but not with the deoxynivalenol chemotype. Two chemotypes were identified by chemical analysis and confirmed by PCR. Strains of the nivalenol chemotype produced nivalenol (up to 260 µg g^-1) and 4-acetyl-nivalenol (up to 60 µg g^-1), strains with the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype produced deoxynivalenol (up to 1700 µg g^-1) and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (up to 600 µg g^-1). Three strains of F. culmorum from France, previously reported as 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol producers, had the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype. The results are consistent with data from other European countries on the occurrence of the nivalenol and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotypes and provide support for the hypothesis that European isolates of F. culmorum producing deoxynivalenol belong only to the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype. The production of trichothecenes from F. culmorum isolates from walnut (3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype) and leek (nivalenol chemotype) is reported for the first time.     

Content of mercury and cadmium in fish (Thunnus alalunga) and cephalopods (Eledone moschata) from the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea

Mercury and cadmium concentrations were measured in the flesh and liver (or hepatopancreas) of albacore (Thunnus alalunga) and horned octopus (Eledone moschata) to establish whether the concentrations exceeded the maximum levels fixed by the European Commission. In both species, mercury and cadmium mean concentrations were higher in liver (albacore: mercury = 2.41 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 9.22 μg g^-1 wet wt; horned octopus: mercury = 0.76 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 6.72 μg g^-1 wet wt) than in flesh (albacore: mercury = 1.56 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 0.05 μg g^-1 wet wt; horned octopus: mercury = 0.36 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 0.33 μg g^-1). Mercury concentrations exceeding the prescribed legal limit of 1 μg g^-1 wet wt were found in almost all albacore samples (flesh: 71.4%; liver: 85.7%). For horned octopus, concentrations above 0.5 μg g^-1 wet wt were observed solely in hepatopancreas, while in flesh, the concentrations were below this limit in all the samples examined. Of the flesh samples of albacore, 42.8% exceeded the proposed tolerance for cadmium for human consumption, whilst for horned octopus, the established limit was not exceeded in any sample.     

2-Isopropylthioxanthone (2-ITX) in food and food packaging materials on the German market

To elucidate the occurrence of the photo-initiator, 2-isopropylthioxanthone (2-ITX), more than 100 food products on the German market, packed in cartons, plastic cups and foils, were investigated. For this, a rapid method to detect 2-ITX in food packaging materials was established. In case of positive findings, the accompanying foodstuffs were analysed in a subsequent step using different extraction methods, depending on the fat content of the food. Determination of the photo-initiator was done by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array and fluorescence detection (HPLC-DAD/FLD). Recoveries ranged between 94 and 106% for non-fatty (RSD ≤ 1.1) and between 80 and 105% for fatty foods (RSD ≤ 8.5). The limit of detection and limit of quantification were determined to 2 and 5 µg l^-1. 2-ITX was detected in 36 of 137 packages (26%) and significant migration occurred in 75% of the packaging materials tested positive. The levels of 2-ITX ranged up to 357 µg kg^-1 in orange juice.     

Survey of total mercury in some edible fish and shellfish species collected in Canada in 2002

Total mercury was measured in the edible portions of 244 selected fish and shellfish purchased in Canada at the retail level. By species, average mercury concentrations ranged from 0.011 μg g^-1 for oysters to 1.82 μg g^-1 for swordfish. The predatory fish contained the highest concentrations of mercury: swordfish (mean 1.82 μg g^-1, range 0.40-3.85 μg g^-1), marlin (1.43, 0.34-3.19 μg g^-1), shark (1.26, 0.087-2.73 μg g^-1), and canned, fresh and frozen tuna (0.35, 0.020-2.12 μg g^-1). Levels of mercury in the fresh and frozen tuna contained a mean of 0.93 μg g^-1 (range 0.077-2.12 μg g^-1) and were substantially higher than in the canned tuna (0.15, 0.02-0.59 μg g^-1). In the canned tuna, mercury concentrations varied with subspecies, with the highest average concentrations being found in Albacore tuna (mean 0.26 μg g^-1, range 0.19-0.38 μg g^-1) and the lowest (0.047, 0.025-0.069 μg g^-1) in five samples for which the subspecies of tuna were not identified. Mean concentrations of mercury in swordfish and fresh and frozen tuna were up to three times higher than reported for the USA. Dietary intake estimations found that provided fresh and frozen tuna, marlin, swordfish or shark are consumed once a month or less, the dietary intakes of total mercury by women of child-bearing age, averaged over 1 month, would fall below the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives provisional tolerable weekly intake for total mercury. The current Canadian advisory to children and women of child-bearing age is to limit their consumption of fresh and frozen tuna, swordfish and shark to no more than one meal per month.     

Contaminants in organically and conventionally produced winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Belgium

A database has been compiled with the levels of important contaminants (mycotoxins, heavy metals and pesticides) measured from 2002 to 2005 in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown in Belgium according to the organic and conventional farming systems. Assuming no further change in contaminant levels during cereal processing and during the preparation of foodstuffs, conservative intakes are estimated for the consumers of cereal-based products such as flour, bread, breakfast cereals, dough and pastry. The results show that for the consumer of organic foodstuffs, estimated daily intakes are 0.56 µg deoxynivalenol (DON), 0.03 µg zearalenone (ZEA), 0.19 µg Cd, 0.28 µg Pb and 0.0006 µg Hg kg^-1 body weight, taking into account the average contaminant levels in unprocessed grains and the average cereal products consumptions in Belgium. For the consumers of conventional foodstuffs, the corresponding estimated daily intakes are 0.99 µg DON, 0.06 µg ZEA, 0.17 µg Cd, 0.12 µg Pb and 0.0007 µg Hg kg^-1 body weight. In addition, it appears that for the consumers of conventional products, intakes of some post-harvest insecticides have to be taken into account (0.11 µg chlorpyriphos-methyl, 0.2 µg dichlorvos and 0.24 µg pirimiphos-methyl kg^-1 bw). When expressed as a percentage of the tolerable/acceptable daily intake (TDI/ADI), it seems that the corresponding estimated (conservative) intakes are the highest for DON (56% for organic and 99% for conventional cereal products), ZEA (16% for organic and 32% for conventional cereal products), and Cd (19% for organic and 17% for conventional cereal products), all other estimated intakes of contaminants (including pesticides) being lower than 10% of the TDI/ADI.     

A sulfadimidine model to evaluate pharmacokinetics and residues at various concentrations in laying hen

Low level intake of drugs from the ingestion of contaminated feed may lead to residue problems in food animals. Sulfadimidine (SDD) was used as a model to determine the residue risk at various doses in laying hens. The drug was administered as a single intravenous injection (100 mg kg^-1 body weight, BW), as a single oral dose (100, 30, 10, 3, 1 mg kg^-1 BW) and via medicated feed for 7 consecutive days (30, 10, 3 mg kg^-1 BW). Drug levels were determined with HPLC-UV for plasma, yolk and albumen. Pharmacokinetic values, which were calculated using a first-order one-compartment model, residue levels and transfer rates into the eggs were found to be dose-dependent. Even low doses of 3 and 1 mg kg^-1 BW resulted in measurable residues in yolk and albumen 1 day after a single oral administration. After ingestion of medicated feed at 3 mg kg^-1 BW, mean drug levels at 0.14 ± 0.01 µg g^-1 were found in albumen and at 0.09 ± 0.01 µg ml^-1 in plasma. Generally, the residue levels in albumen and plasma were higher than in yolk. These findings demonstrate a residue risk for the consumer even after low level intake of drugs.     

Comparison of various assays used for detection of beta-lactam antibiotics in poultry meat

In this study, microbiological tests for the detection of beta-lactam antibiotics in meat and meat products were evaluated. The traditional FPT (four plate test, containing Bacillus subtilis and Kocuria rhizophila), BsDA (Bacillus stearothermophilus disc assay) and a newly developed microbiological test, Premi®Test (containing Bacillus stearothermophilus) were included in the study. The limit of detection (LOD) of the Premi®Test was compared with the LOD of the traditional methods. The detection limits of the tests were determined by using beta-lactam antibiotic standards dissolved in meat juice, as well as meat tissue obtained from laying hens after experimental administration of amoxicillin. Positive samples, based on inhibition of growth of the organism in the test, were confirmed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Growth inhibition in the traditional tests is visible as a clear zone on the plate, whereas for Premi®Test, this is based on the absence of a colour change of the test. The LODs of antibiotics tested were as follows: Penicillin G (PENG) 5 µg kg^-1, amoxicillin (AMOX) 10 µg kg^-1, ampicillin (AMP) 25 µg kg^-1, oxacillin (OXA) 30 µg kg^-1, and cloxacillin (CLOX) 30 µg kg^-1 on the plate with Bacillus stearothermophilus. Beta-lactam antibiotics can be detected also on one plate seeded with Kocuria rhizophila, although the LODs are higher: PENG 10 µg kg^-1, AMOX 25 µg kg^-1, AMP 30 µg kg^-1, OXA 50 µg kg^-1, and CLOX 50 µg kg^-1. Premi®Test was performed according to the Standard Operating Procedure intended for detection of beta-lactam antibiotics in poultry tissues with following LODs: PENG 4 µg kg^-1, AMOX 5 µg kg^-1, AMP 5 µg kg^-1, OXA 40 µg kg^-1, CLOX 50 µg kg^-1. All tests are able to detect beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin G, ampicillin, amoxicillin, oxacillin and cloxacillin below the maximum residue level (MRL). However, the detection limits of the Premi®Test for PENG, AMOX and AMP were below the limits of BsDA and the plate containing Kocuria rhizophila.     

The occurrence of nitrofuran metabolites in the tissues of chickens exposed to very low dietary concentrations of the nitrofurans

The global problem of food products contaminated by residues of the banned carcinogenic nitrofuran drugs has prompted research into how such residues accumulate in tissues. In the study described here, two aspects have been investigated where the nitrofurans accumulate in tissues from chickens exposed to either a dietary or an environmental source of contamination. Twenty groups of broilers were fed a diet containing one of the nitrofurans: furazolidone, nitrofurazone, nitrofurantoin or furaltadone at concentrations of 30, 100, 300, 1000 and 3000 µg kg^-1. At the lowest concentration of furazolidone contamination (0.01% of the therapeutic dose) tissue bound AOZ metabolite residues were detected in liver (1.1 ± 0.2 µg kg^-1) and in muscle (0.33 ± 0.03 µg kg^-1). Similar results were obtained for AMOZ (0.6 ± 0.2 µg kg^-1 in liver), the tissue bound metabolite of furaltadone. There was no appreciable accumulation of nitrofurantoin in chicken muscle. The AHD metabolite was not detected in muscle from birds fed nitrofurantoin at either 30 or 100 µg kg^-1. For nitrofurazone the concentrations of the SEM metabolite were higher in muscle than in liver for all dietary concentrations. The potential for a contaminated environment to cause nitrofuran residues in chickens was investigated. Six chickens were placed in a pen that was previously occupied by birds fed a diet containing 3000 µg kg^-1 of furazolidone. After 24 hours' exposure of the chickens to the litter in the pen, AOZ residues of 0.13 ± 0.04 and 0.10 ± 0.03 µg kg^-1 were detected in liver and muscle, respectively. The results of both experiments have implications for the poultry industry in trying to eliminate nitrofurans from their production systems, and for regulatory analysts faced with the detection of low concentrations of the drugs, both in tissues and in feedingstuffs.     

Hair mercury levels in relation to fish consumption in a community of the Moroccan Mediterranean coast

Coastal populations with high seafood consumption in the Mediterranean have a significant exposure to dietary methylmercury, and areas where environmental mercury pollution is an issue due to industrial activities are of special concern. The study was undertaken with the aim of assessing methylmercury exposure through fish consumption in a community of north Morocco and characterizing the relevant health risk. Concentrations of total mercury were determined in human hair, a biomarker of methylmercury exposure, and in locally consumed fish by cold vapour atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Based on consumption frequencies reported by the 108 subjects included in the study the weekly intake of methylmercury was estimated and biomarker data were evaluated in relation to the estimated intake and the sociodemographic characteristics of the population. Multiple regression analysis was employed for the interpretation of hair mercury data in relation to fish consumption frequency, gender and the age of individuals. Mercury concentrations in hair ranged from 0.22 to 9.56 µg g^-1 (geometric mean = 1.79 µg g^-1) and were closely related to fish intake. Fisherman and their families consumed fish three to five times per week and were the most exposed population subgroup. A high proportion of women of child-bearing age (50%) had relatively high levels of mercury in their hair (3.08-7.88 µg g^-1).     

Five-year survey of ochratoxin A in processed sultanas from Turkey

The results of surveillance for ochratoxin A (OTA) in 1885 samples of sultanas taken during five crop years between 1999 and 2003 are reported. The analytical method was based on extraction with methanol + sodium bicarbonate and clean-up by immunoaffinity column chromatography followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The limit of detection for OTA was 0.3 µg kg^-1. The results show that 9.3% of the samples contained no detectable levels of OTA, whereas 0.6% had concentrations exceeding 10 µg kg^-1; the remaining 90.3% had levels within the range 0.3-10 µg kg^-1. The overall mean OTA concentration in the total number of 1885 samples taken was 1.36 ± 2.91 µg kg^-1; the overall median was calculated as 0.90 µg kg^-1.     

Lead and cadmium in meat and meat products consumed by the population in Tenerife Island, Spain

The aim of this study was to determine the levels of lead and cadmium in chicken, pork, beef, lamb and turkey samples (both meat and meat products), collected in the island of Tenerife (Spain). Lead and cadmium were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). Mean concentrations of lead and cadmium were 6.94 and 1.68 µg kg^-1 in chicken meat, 5.00 and 5.49 µg kg^-1 in pork meat, 1.91 and 1.90 µg kg^-1 in beef meat and 1.35 and 1.22 µg kg^-1 in lamb meat samples, respectively. Lead was below the detection limit in turkey samples and mean cadmium concentration was 5.49 µg kg^-1. Mean concentrations of lead and cadmium in chicken meat product samples were 3.16 and 4.15 µg kg^-1, 4.89 and 6.50 µg kg^-1 in pork meat product, 6.72 and 4.76 µg kg^-1 in beef meat product and 9.12 and 5.98 µg kg^-1 in turkey meat product samples, respectively. The percentage contribution of the two considered metals to provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) was calculated for meat and meat products. Statistically significant differences were found for lead content in meats between the chicken and pork groups and the turkey and beef groups, whereas for cadmium concentrations in meats, significant differences were observed between the turkey and chicken, beef and lamb groups. In meat products, no clear differences were observed for lead and cadmium between the various groups.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products and estimated PAH intake by children and the general population in Estonia

The concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and 11 other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed from 322 commercial, cured meat products and 14 home-grilled meat samples as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme during 2001-2005. The maximum acceptable concentration of 5 µg kg^-1 for benzo[a]pyrene was exceeded in 3.4% of samples. The highest PAH concentrations were detected in home-grilled pork samples. Using of disposable grilling unit resulted in 1.6 times higher PAH concentrations compared to the traditional wood-burning grill. The average intake of benzo[a]pyrene and sum of 12 PAHs from meat products was estimated for children (age 1-16 years) on the basis of an individual food consumption questionnaire and, for the general population, based on national food consumption data. The highest total PAH concentrations detected were 16 µg kg^-1 in smoked meat and ham, 19 µg kg^-1 in smoked sausage and 6.5 µg kg^-1 in smoked chicken samples. Since smoking and grilling are prevalent meat-cooking methods in Estonia, the impact of meat products is assessed to be significant in overall PAH intake.     

Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content of spices in Hungary

In October and November 2004, 91 spice samples (70 ground red pepper, six black pepper, five white pepper, five spice mix and five chilli samples), the majority of which originated from commercial outlets, were analysed for aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) content by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after immunoaffinity column clean-up. Eighteen of the 70 ground red pepper samples contained AFB1, seven of them in a concentration exceeding the 'maximum level' of 5 µg kg^-1 (range 6.1-15.7 µg kg^-1). Of the other spices assayed, the AFB1 contamination of one chilli sample exceeded 5 µg kg^-1 (8.1 µg kg^-1). Thirty-two of the 70 ground red pepper samples contained OTA, eight of them in a concentration exceeding the 10 µg kg^-1 'maximum level' (range 10.6-66.2 µg kg^-1). One chilli sample was contaminated with OTA at 2.1 µg kg^-1. The AFB1 and OTA contamination of ground red pepper exceeding the 'maximum level' (5 and 10 µg kg^-1, respectively) was obviously the consequence of mixing imported ground red pepper batches heavily contaminated with AFB1 and OTA with red pepper produced in Hungary. This case calls attention to the importance of consistently screening imported batches of ground red pepper for aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content and strictly prohibiting the use of batches containing mycotoxin concentrations exceeding the maximum permitted level.     

Wheat kernel black point and fumonisin contamination by Fusarium proliferatum

Fusarium proliferatum is a major cause of maize ear rot and fumonisin contamination and also can cause wheat kernel black point disease. The primary objective of this study was to determine whether nine F. proliferatum strains from wheat from Nepal can cause black point and fumonisin contamination in wheat kernels. For comparison, the study included three Fusarium strains from US maize. In test 1, all the strains but one produced significant symptoms of kernel black point; two strains decreased kernel yield; and four strains contaminated kernels with fumonisins B₁, B₂ and B₃ as determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Strain Ggm202 from Nepal, which produced the highest levels of fumonisins (mean = 49 µg g^-1) on five wheat cultivars in test 1, was confirmed to produce fumonisins (mean = 38 µg g^-1) on two cultivars in test 2. The data indicate a potential for fumonisin contamination of wheat infected with F. proliferatum.     

Determination of selected mycotoxins in mould cheeses with liquid chromatography coupled to tandem with mass spectrometry

A simple and feasible method is described for analysing nine mycotoxins in cheese matrix. The method involves liquid extraction followed by high performance liquid chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric detection of the analytes, and allows the determination of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and M1, ochratoxin A, mycophenolic acid, penicillic acid and roquefortine C simultaneously. Average recoveries of the mycotoxins from spiked samples at concentration levels of 5-200 µg kg^-1 ranged from 96-143%. Within-day relative standard deviations at these concentration levels varied from 2.3-12.1%. The limit of quantification for aflatoxin M1 was 0.6 µg kg^-1 and for the other compounds 5 µg kg^-1. The method developed was applied for analysing these mycotoxins in blue and white mould cheeses purchased from Finnish supermarkets. Roquefortine C was detected in all of the blue mould cheese samples in concentrations of 0.8-12 mg kg^-1. One blue cheese contained also 0.3 mg kg^-1 mycophenolic acid. The other investigated mycotoxins were absent in the samples.