The goals behind performance goals.

Despite decades of research on achievement goals, there is still relatively little known about differences among individuals in their conceptualizations of performance goals and reasons for pursuing them in academic settings. The purpose of the present investigation was to use participants' own words, rather than survey measures or experimental manipulations, to examine the variety of reasons students gave for pursuing performance goals. Fifty-three high school seniors with relatively high scores on a survey measure of performance-avoidance goals were interviewed. Analysis of the interviews revealed that students' reasons for pursuing performance goals could be divided into 4 categories: appearance-approach, appearance-avoidance, competition-approach, and competition-avoidance. Within each of these 4 categories, students mentioned a wide variety of purposes behind their goal pursuits such as wanting to please parents, to silence nay-saying peers, and to prove something to one's self. Implications for achievement goal theory and research methodology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting from process goals to outcome goals.

The effects of goal setting and self-monitoring during self-regulated practice on the acquisition of a complex motoric skill were studied with 90 high school girls. It was hypothesized that girls who shifted goals developmentally from process to outcome goals would surpass classmates who adhered to only process goals who, in turn, would exceed classmates who used only outcome goals in posttest dart-throwing skill, self-reactions, self-efficacy perceptions, and intrinsic interest in the game. Support for all hypotheses derived from the developmental model was found. The girls' self-reactions to dart-throwing outcomes and self-efficacy perceptions about dart skill were highly correlated with their intrinsic interest in the game. It was also found that self-recording, a formal form of self-monitoring, enhanced dart-throwing skill, self-efficacy, and self-reaction beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Addressees of performance goals.

As performance goals aim to both procure acknowledgment of one's abilities and to avoid revealing a lack of one's abilities, the authors hypothesized that students hold specific performance goals for different addressees and that there are specific correlational patterns with other motivational constructs. They analyzed a data set of 2,675 pupils (1,248 boys and 1,426 girls) attending Grades 8 and 9 (mean age=15.0, SD=0.97). The students completed a questionnaire consisting of 12 items measuring performance approach goals and 12 items measuring performance avoidance goals. In each subset, 4 groups of addressees were differentiated: parents, teachers, peers, and the acting individual him/herself. Additionally, several external criteria were measured. The authors concurrently tested theory-driven, structural equation models. Incorporating all 24 items, the best-fitting model was a multitrait-multimethod model, which posited 2 factors for approach and avoidance goals and 4 addressee factors. While performance goals addressing parents showed relationships to maladaptive motivational and learning patterns, performance goals addressing classmates and self showed relationships to adaptive motivational and learning patterns. The relationships between performance goals addressing teachers and external criteria were rather weak and unsystematic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking technology and structure to enhance group performance.

We examined linkages between technology and structure at the group level of analysis as predictors of group performance. The general hypothesis is that group technology/structural fit is a better predictor of work group performance than either technology or structure alone. Related hypotheses match three technology variables (task predictability, problem analyzability, and interdependence) with three group structural variables (horizontal differentiation, vertical differentiation, and connectedness) to predict group performance. Technology/structural fit variables in this study are significant predictors of group performance, as are group structural properties alone. Technology variables are very poor predictors alone. The fit variables add significant explained variance over and above the technology and structural variables as universalistic predictors. Predictions about which technology and structural variables to match for higher group performance are generally supported. These results could allow future contingency research to make greater contributions to theory building about group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking in-session change to overall outcome in short-term cognitive therapy.

Validated suboutcome measures that represent intermediate links between more molecular in-session changes and ultimate outcome. The present study involved the collection of pre- and postsession ratings from 53 patients in a 20-session protocol of cognitive therapy, which yielded anxiety shift, depression shift, cognitive shift, optimism shift, and therapeutic alliance. From a series of regression analyses of repeated measures with a generalized estimating equations approach, results regarding the predictive relationship of these variables to a number of patient and therapist-rated outcome criterion variables indicated that change in cognition and quality of the therapeutic alliance were the strongest predictors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 70(2) of Journal of Applied Psychology (see record 2008-10965-001). The third line was left out on p. 696, top right column. The entire section should read as follows: "Figure 1 compares the goals on T-1 with the mean goals chosen on T-2 by the same groups of subjects (i.e., grouped according to T-1 goals). On T-2 the mean goal levels of the seven original groups ranged from 4.8 to 12.9, in contrast with the T-1 range of 2 to 26."] 231 undergraduates were asked to list from 2–26 uses for common objects depending on the level of difficulty of the section (1 of 7) to which they were assigned. Ss were given a 1-min practice trial after task explanations and were then administered 2 experimental trials. Ss were told they were free to change their goals to a higher or lower level for the 2nd trial if they did not like the goal they had been assigned. Results show that Ss chose more difficult goals, if the assigned goals had been easy, and easier goals, if the assigned goals had been difficult. Ss were heavily influenced in their self-set goals by their previously assigned goals. The performance of Ss with impossible goals did not drop on the 2nd trial. A goal–expectancy interaction was found on the 2nd trial that was due to expectancy being positively related to performance at the higher but not the lower goal levels. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals.

Eighty-four high school girls practiced combining a series of kernel sentences into a single nonredundant sentence. The outcome goal focused on minimizing the number of words in the combined sentence, whereas process goal emphasized a 3-step method for combining kernel sentences. It was found that girls who shifted goals sequentially from process to outcome goals surpassed classmates who adhered to only process goals who, in turn, exceeded classmates using only outcome goals in posttest writing revision skill, self-reactions, self-efficacy perceptions, and intrinsic interest in this skill. Attributions of deficient performance to strategy choice was positively correlated with self-reactions, self-efficacy beliefs, and intrinsic interest whereas attributions to ability or effort were negatively correlated with these measures. Self-recording enhanced writing skill, self-efficacy, and self-reaction beliefs significantly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking injection drug users to medical services: role of street outreach referrals

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed to assess the effects of background noise level on the detection and localization of speech. DESIGN: The phrase "Where is this?" was presented either in quiet or in a diffuse noise field, through loudspeakers arranged in a 360 degrees azimuth array. The noise conditions included 11 signal to noise ratios (SNRs) ranging from -18 dB SNR to +12 dB SNR in 3 dB increments. Seventeen normal-hearing subjects, aged 18 to 29, participated in the study. RESULTS: Results revealed that in all listening conditions the signal was most easily detected when presented through a loudspeaker positioned at 90 degrees or 270 degrees azimuth. Although the actual level for 50% detection varied as a function of loudspeaker location and SNR, 85% and 100% of all presentations of the signal were detected at -9 dB and -6 dB SNR, respectively. Localization accuracy improved as the SNR increased, ranging from 18% accuracy at -18 dB SNR to 89% at +12 dB SNR. Localization accuracy in quiet was 95%. The data are discussed in reference to patterns of responses at each loudspeaker location. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of the target signal deteriorated as background noise level increased and was dependent on the source location of the incoming signal, as expected. Localization accuracy of the target signal was highly dependent on the SNR and spatial location of the signal source. Detection and localization accuracy data were found to be repeatable across test sessions and response patterns were found to be symmetrical on the right and left sides of the horizontal plane.     

Role of performance goals in prose learning.

Investigated the effect of learning goal instructions in prose learning. 96 Ss read and were tested on 2 passages. Different goal instructions were introduced for the 2nd passage with either a paced or an unpaced reading period. For both paced and unpaced conditions, a Hard Goal condition (answer 18 of 20 test questions) produced significantly higher estimates before reading of the number to be answered correctly and a greater number correct on the test after reading than did Easy Goal (5 of 20) and General Goal ("do your best") conditions. The Hard Goal improvement was attributed to an increase in study persistence and changes in learning behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Statistical methodology: VII. Q-methodology, a structural analytic approach to medical subjectivity

Q-methodology is a relatively unknown tool to medical researchers, that uses a mixed quantitative/qualitative statistical technique known as by-person factor analysis to study subjectivity. Q-methodology allows the grouping of individuals according to their subjective feelings about a topic, without requiring preconceived ideas regarding the structure of those subjective feelings. Q-methodology is demonstrated using a study in which attitudes of emergency medicine residents toward computer education are explored systematically and classified in terms of statistically distinct factor viewpoints. In this example, Q-methodology identifies 4 attitude groups, as related to computers and computer education: 1) interested, eager to learn; 2) frustrated and interested, but with reservations; 3) interested mainly in benefits, willing to expend minimal effort; and 4) knowledgeable, independent learner. Q-methodology can be used to determine the structure of attitudes on a subjective topic, often yielding new insights.     

Cognitive aspects of psychomotor performance: The effects of performance goals on level of performance.

Reports an experiment stemming from Mace's work on the effects of performance standards on level of performance. It was found that Ss given specific (but difficult) standards performed at a higher level on a complex psychomotor task than Ss told to "do their best," thus replicating Mace's finding with a computation task. In contrast to Mace's study where performance goals worked by prolonging effort during the latter part of the work periods, the standards intensified effort at all stages of the work periods in the present case. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of goals and microlevel work processes to performance on a multipath manual task.

This laboratory experiment used real-time observation to examine the relationships among goals, work processes, and quantity and quality outcomes using a simple multipath assembly task. Trained observers were able to reliably and accurately document work processes used to perform the task, supporting the use of real-time observation for documenting microlevel task strategies. Results show that (a) work processes were affected by goal content (quantity vs. quality); (b) goal form (gradually difficult vs. fixed and difficult) did not influence outcomes or processes used; (c) work processes and personal goals completely mediated the prediction of quantity outcomes and partially mediated quality outcomes; (d) process-only goals produced a greater number of process changes than outcome goals but led to poorer performance; and (e) outcome goals had a lagged effect on performance. The implications for goal-setting theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goals and feedback on performance in groups.

In the first study, 26 undergraduate pairs and 52 individuals worked on a perceptual speed task for 20 min to win prizes based on performance. The pairs set group goals and individual goals to be attained, whereas the individuals set only individual goals. Despite the equal levels of individual goals set, goal acceptance and performance were significantly higher for the pairs than for the individuals. A stepwise hierarchical regression analysis supported the contributions of goal acceptance and group goals to performance. In the second study, 50 undergraduate pairs were assigned a goal to be attained as teams on a perceptual speed task lasting 15 min. Group and individual task feedback, given after 7? min of work, significantly improved performance only for those subjects who were below target for either group or individual feedback, yielding interaction effects on performance. The implications of the findings for group goal setting, social loafing, and organizational effectiveness are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accounting for self-selected drinking goals in the assessment of treatment outcome.

Many treatment outcome studies are abstinence-based and rely on achieved abstinence as an indicator of success, making the implicit assumption that participants have an abstinence goal. However, it is often the case that participants self-select controlled drinking goals, even in the context of an abstinence-based treatment. The current study explored the use of an outcome variable, percent weeks meeting goal (PWMG), which takes into account individual goal choice at baseline. The sample consisted of 57 women who participated in a cognitive-behavioral therapy treatment for alcohol dependence and were followed for 18 months after baseline. Twenty-two (39%) women self-selected controlled drinking goals, and 35 (61%) self-selected an abstinence goal at baseline. A repeated measures analysis of variance with PWMG as the dependent variable revealed that both goal groups were equally successful in meeting their goals during the 6-month treatment period. After treatment, participants with a goal of abstinence had more PWMG than did participants with a self-selected controlled drinking goal, but the difference was significant at a trend level. The two goal groups did not differ in outcome when the authors compared them using more traditional measures of outcome, percent days abstinent and percent heavy drinking days. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of ability, assigned goals, and normative information on personal goals and performance: A challenge to the goal attainability assumption.

58 undergraduates were assigned randomly to 1 of 6 experimental conditions representing 2 levels of goal difficulty (easy vs very hard) and 3 levels of normative information, indicating that the goal had been achieved by 95, 50, or 5% of students previously tested. Ss then set their own performance goals for a creativity task, which they performed over 10 repeated trials. Following Trial 10, Ss were allowed to choose to continue working on from 0 to 5 more trials. As hypothesized, personal performance goals were strongly influenced by assigned goals, but ability, as measured by pretest performance, had no relation to personal goals. Normative information did not influence personal goals directly but did, unexpectedly, interact with assigned goals. Both assigned goals and ability had significant and independent effects on performance, as hypothesized. The results of a path analysis revealed that assigned goals influenced performance both indirectly, through their influence on personal goals, and directly, due to the fact that most Ss assigned very difficult goals set personal performance goals at or above their ability ceiling. Ss assigned goals beyond their immediate reach did not evidence any decrement in intrinsic motivation when compared with those assigned easier goals. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A first examination of the relationships between primed subconscious goals, assigned conscious goals, and task performance.

The authors conducted 2 studies of subconscious goal motivation. First, the authors ran a pilot study to establish the effects of priming of subconscious goals on a performance task frequently used in goal setting research. Second, the authors conducted the main study in which the authors examined the effects of both priming of subconscious goals and assigned conscious goals on the same performance task. The authors found significant main effects of both manipulations and a significant interaction between subconscious and conscious goals. The effects of conscious difficult and do-best goals were enhanced by subconscious goals, although conscious easy goals were not affected. All effects from the main study still held after 1 day. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of behavioural outcome goals, learning goals, and urging people to do their best on an individual's teamwork behaviour in a group problem-solving task.

States that research has shown that learning goals are superior to outcome goals on complex tasks. The effectiveness of behavioral outcome goals (set using behavioral observation scales), learning goals, and urging people to do their best was examined in the context of a training program designed to improve an individual's teamwork behavior in a group problem-solving task. 50 participants (mean age 25.3 yrs) who set behavioral or learning goals had higher self-efficacy relative to those urged to "do their best". Self-efficacy correlated positively with teamwork behavior and goal commitment. Behavioral goals were superior to learning goals and being urged to "do your best" in bringing about teamwork behavior. These findings suggest that behavioral outcome goals may mitigate the need for learning goals on complex tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mastery and performance goals predict epistemic and relational conflict regulation.

The present research examines whether mastery and performance goals predict different ways of reacting to a sociocognitive conflict with another person over materials to be learned, an issue not yet addressed by the achievement goal literature. Results from 2 studies showed that mastery goals predicted epistemic conflict regulation (a conflict regulation strategy focused on the attempt to integrate both points of view), whereas performance goals predicted relational conflict regulation (a conflict regulation strategy focused on the evaluation and affirmation of self-competence). Study 1 shows these links via direct self-report measures of conflict regulation. Study 2 shows the same links using the amount of competence reported for the self and for the other as subtle measures of conflict regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced performance feedback to strengthen biofeedback treatment outcome with childhood migraine

The activity of rifabutin (LM 427) against Mycobacterium leprae was evaluated in armadillos inoculated earlier with human-derived M. leprae. Rifabutin was administered daily at a dose of 6 mg/kg body weight/day. The effect of rifabutin on M. leprae harvested from armadillos was determined by measuring the intracellular levels of ATP (an indicator of metabolic activity) of M. leprae and also their ability to multiply in the mouse footpads and in vitro in DH medium. Within 2 weeks of initiating the treatment, ATP levels declined to 21% of the original (pre-treatment level) and these M. leprae failed to multiply in the footpads of mice as well as in the in vitro culture system. This suggests that rifabutin was able to kill all M. leprae within 2 weeks. After 8 weeks the treatment was terminated and results showed that M. leprae from the treated armadillos remained non-viable in the mouse footpad system as well as in the in vitro system, indicating bactericidal action of rifabutin. The results suggest that rifabutin can be a substitute for rifampin in the leprosy multi-drug therapy regimen.     

The roles of rater goals and ratee performance levels in the distortion of performance ratings.

The goal-directed perspective of performance appraisal suggests that raters with different goals will give different ratings. Considering the performance level as an important contextual factor, we conducted 2 studies in a peer rating context and in a nonpeer rating context and found that raters do use different rating tactics to achieve specific goals. Raters inflated their peer ratings under the harmony, fairness, and motivating goal conditions (Study 1, N = 103). More important, raters inflated their ratings more for low performers than for high and medium performers. In a nonpeer rating context, raters deflated ratings for high performers to achieve the fairness goal, and they inflated ratings for low performers to motivate them (Study 2, N = 120). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)