Comprehensive analysis of fatty acids in human milk of four Asian countries

Human milk lipids provide not only energy but also indispensable bioactive components such as essential fatty acids. To establish the recommended daily intake value and guidelines for infant formula, a reference library of fatty acid composition has been generated from 4 Asian countries (South Korea, China, Vietnam, and Pakistan). Regardless of country, palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:1), and linolenic acid (C18:2) were the 3 most abundant fatty acids in human milk and account for more than 75% of total fatty acids (total FA). However, there were several considerable differences between fatty acids, particularly n-3 and n-6 (omega-3 and omega-6) groups. Chinese mothers' milk had a high concentration of linoleic acid at 24.38 ± 10.02% of total FA, which may be due to maternal diet. Among the 4 countries, Pakistani mothers' milk contained a high amount of saturated fatty acid (56.83 ± 5.96% of total FA), and consequently, polyunsaturated fatty acids, including n-3 and n-6, were significantly lower than in other countries. It is noteworthy that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in Pakistani mothers' milk was 44.8 ± 33.3 mg/L, which is only 25 to 30% of the levels in the other 3 countries, suggesting the need for DHA supplementation for infants in Pakistan. Moreover, the ratio of n-6 to n-3 was also remarkably high in Pakistani mothers' milk (15.21 ± 4.96), being 1.4- to 1.7-fold higher than in other countries. The average DHA:ARA ratio in Asian human milk was 1.01 ± 0.79. Korean mothers' milk showed a high DHA:ARA ratio, with a value of 1.30 ± 0.98, but Pakistani mothers' milk had a significantly lower value (0.42 ± 0.12). The fatty acid compositions and anthropometric data of mother (body mass index, age) did not show any correlation. The obtained data might provide information about human milk compositions in the Asian region that could benefit from setting up recommended nutrient intake and infant formula for Asian babies.     

常用动、植物食用油中脂肪酸组成的分析

以氢氧化钾/甲醇碱催化法对食用油样品进行甲酯化衍生化预处理,采用气相色谱-质谱联用技术,对采自西安、咸阳市的16种食用植物油和4种动物油(猪油、牛油、羊油和鸡油)中的脂肪酸组成进行测定,并对其所含各类脂肪酸的比例关系进行详细地分析,以确定不同类型食用油的营养特征。结果显示,各类食用油所含的主要脂肪酸成分是棕榈酸、硬脂酸、油酸、11-十八碳烯酸、亚油酸、亚麻酸、花生单烯酸以及芥酸等;不同类型的食用油脂中,饱和、单不饱和、多不饱和脂肪酸之比值差异极大,而且多不饱和脂肪酸中n-6脂肪酸与n-3脂肪酸之比值差别也很大。     

Comparing the fatty acid composition of organic and conventional milk

During a 12-mo longitudinal study, bulk-tank milk was collected each month from organic (n = 17) and conventional (n = 19) dairy farms in the United Kingdom. All milk samples were analyzed for fatty acid (FA) content, with the farming system type, herd production level, and nutritional factors affecting the FA composition investigated by use of mixed model analyses. Models were constructed for saturated fatty acids, the ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to monounsaturated fatty acids, total n-3 FA, total n-6 FA, conjugated linoleic acid, and vaccenic acid. The ratio of n-6:n-3 FA in both organic and conventional milk was also compared. Organic milk had a higher proportion of PUFA to monounsaturated fatty acids and of n-3 FA than conventional milk, and contained a consistently lower n-6:n-3 FA ratio (which is considered beneficial) compared with conventional milk. There was no difference between organic and conventional milk with respect to the proportion of conjugated linoleic acid or vaccenic acid. A number of factors other than farming system were identified which affected milk FA content including month of year, herd average milk yield, breed type, use of a total mixed ration, and access to fresh grazing. Thus, organic dairy farms in the United Kingdom produce milk with a higher PUFA content, particularly n-3 FA, throughout the year. However, knowledge of the effects of season, access to fresh grazing, or use of specific silage types could be used by producers to enhance the content of beneficial FA in milk.     

Use of algae or algal oil rich in n-3 fatty acids as a feed supplement for dairy cattle

Fish oil is used as a ration additive to provide n-3 fatty acids to dairy cows. Fish do not synthesize n-3 fatty acids; they must consume microscopic algae or other algae-consuming fish. New technology allows for the production of algal biomass for use as a ration supplement for dairy cattle. Lipid encapsulation of the algal biomass protects n-3 fatty acids from biohydrogenation in the rumen and allows them to be available for absorption and utilization in the small intestine. Our objective was to examine the use of algal products as a source for n-3 fatty acids in milk. Four mid-lactation Holsteins were assigned to a 4×4 Latin square design. Their rations were supplemented with 1× or 0.5× rumen-protected (RP) algal biomass supplement, 1× RP algal oil supplement, or no supplement for 7 d. Supplements were lipid encapsulated (Balchem Corp., New Hampton, NY). The 1× supplements provided 29g/d of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and 0.5× provided half of this amount. Treatments were analyzed by orthogonal contrasts. Supplementing dairy rations with rumen-protected algal products did not affect feed intake, milk yield, or milk component yield. Short- and medium-chain fatty acid yields in milk were not influenced by supplements. Both 0.5× and 1× RP algae supplements increased daily milk fat yield of DHA (0.5 and 0.6±0.10g/d, respectively) compared with 1× RP oil (0.3±0.10g/d), but all supplements resulted in milk fat yields greater than that of the control (0.1±0.10g/d). Yield of trans-18:1 fatty acids in milk fat was also increased by supplementation. Trans-11 18:1 yield (13, 20, 27, and 15±3.0g/d for control, 0.5× RP algae, 1× RP algae, and 1× RP oil, respectively) was greater for supplements than for control. Concentration of DHA in the plasma lipid fraction on d 7 showed that the DHA concentration was greatest in plasma phospholipid. Rumen-protected algal biomass provided better DHA yield than algal oil. Feeding lipid-encapsulated algae supplements may increase n-3 content in milk fat without adversely affecting milk fat yield; however, preferential esterification of DHA into plasma phospholipid may limit its incorporation into milk fat.     

脂肪酸鉴定及其在牦牛乳、牦牛肉品质分析中的应用

利用气相色谱-质谱对不同来源的牦牛乳、犏牛乳和牦牛肉脂肪酸组成及含量进行检测,以功能性脂肪酸含量为指标对牦牛乳和牦牛肉的品质进行评价。结果表明:牦牛乳、犏牛乳和牦牛肉中分别鉴定出47、46、37种脂肪酸;不同月份、海拔的牦牛乳中BCFA含量和n-6/n-3比值整体差异极显著(P <0.001),对比发现8月份采自3 500 m夏季牧场的牦牛乳品质最优;犏牛乳中富含多种功能性脂肪酸,接近牦牛乳脂肪酸组成;两种饲养方式(放牧和舍饲育肥)牦牛肉中功能性脂肪酸含量和n-6/n-3比值差异显著,放牧牦牛肉中DHA、DPA、EPA、BCFA等功能性脂肪酸含量均显著高于舍饲育肥牦牛肉,相较于舍饲育肥牦牛,放牧牦牛的牦牛肉品质更佳。     

Inclusion of microalgae in the caprine diet improves nutritional profile of milk and its Camembert cheese

The experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of supplementation with microalgae (Schizochytrium sp.) on the nutritional characteristics of milk and Camembert cheese from dairy goats. The yield and composition of milk and cheese and the sensory quality of cheese were not affected by the supplementation. As the level of supplementation increased, the concentration of docosahexaenoic acid and total n-3 fatty acids increased, whereas the ratio of n-6/n-3 and total saturated fatty acids decreased in the milk and cheese. In conclusion, supplemented goats, especially goats that received 35 g/head/day produced milk and cheese with better fatty acid composition for human consumption, without affecting the production and composition.     

中国主要牧区特色干制发酵乳制品细菌多样性和游离氨基酸及脂肪酸特征性分析

为研究我国主要牧区特色干制发酵乳制品中细菌、游离氨基酸、脂肪酸组成及其相关性,通过高通量测序技术对新疆酸奶疙瘩、西藏曲拉、内蒙古奶渣子和云南乳扇中细菌16S rDNA V4-V5区测序,利用气相色谱-质谱联用技术和液相色谱技术分别测定脂肪酸和游离氨基酸含量,最后再利用冗余分析研究细菌群落与α多样性、脂肪酸和游离氨基酸的相关性。高通量测序结果表明,干制发酵乳制品样本共获得2 421 338条reads,其中clean reads为1 871 524条,云南乳扇中细菌Chao1指数和Shannon指数均明显高于其他3个地区的干制乳制品样品。细菌群落组成分析发现,不同干制乳制品样品的菌群组成差异较大,4个地区的干制乳制品中的菌群均以Firmicutes为主,其中新疆酸奶疙瘩的Firmicutes相对最高,西藏曲拉的Proteobacteria相对于其他地区的干制乳制品占比最高。在属水平上,不同地区的干制乳品主要以Lactococcus或Lactobacillus为主。脂肪酸分析发现,云南乳扇中的16种脂肪酸均高于其他3个地区。对游离氨基酸进行分析,共检出24种游离氨基酸,其中新疆酸奶疙瘩的游...     

Effect of forage conservation method, concentrate level and propylene glycol on the fatty acid composition and vitamin content of cows' milk

Based on potential health benefits, there is a need to develop effective strategies for enhancing milk fat concentrations of cis-9 18:1, 18:3 n-3 and conjugated linoleic (CLA) content in milk without compromising the sensory or storage characteristics of processed milk or dairy products. Sixteen Finnish Ayrshire dairy cows were used in a cyclic change-over experiment with four 21-d experimental periods and a 4 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments to evaluate the effects of forage conservation method, concentrate level and supplements of propylene glycol (PG), and their interactions on milk fatty acid composition and vitamin content. Experimental treatments consisted of four conserved forages offered ad libitum, supplemented with two levels of a standard concentrate (7 or 10 kg/d) and PG (0 and 210 g/d) fed as three equal meals. Primary growths of timothy and meadow fescue sward were conserved by ensiling with none (NA), an inoculant enzyme preparation (IE) or a formic acid based (FORM) additive or as hay 1 week later. Conservation of grass by drying rather than ensiling resulted in lower forage 18:2n-6, 18:3n-3, total fatty acid and fat-soluble vitamin concentrations. In spite of lower intakes, milk fat 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 content was higher (P < 0.05) for hay than for silage diets (12.1, 9.6, 9.6 and 9.3 and 5.00, 3.51, 4.27 and 2.93 g/kg total fatty acids, for hay, NA, IE and FORM silages, respectively). Forage conservation method had no clear effects on milk trans 18:1 or CLA content. Compared with silage, hay diets resulted in milk containing lower (P < 0.001) riboflavin, alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene concentrations, but had no effect on ascorbic acid, thiamine, pyridoxine or retinol content. Feeding more concentrates had no effect on milk fatty acid composition or milk vitamin content, other than lowering (P < 0.001) 16:0 concentrations from 348 to 338 g/kg fatty acids. Supplements of PG led to small (P < 0.05) increases in milk 13:0 anteiso and 15:0 content from 1.06 and 11.3 to 1.22 and 12.6 g/kg fatty acids and reduced (P < 0.05) the concentrations of ascorbic acid (16.1 v. 15.1 g/kg milk).     

Endogenous production and elevated levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids in the milk of transgenic mice

n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are important for the normal development and functioning of all organisms. Mammals lack the n-3 fatty acid desaturase required for the synthesis of α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), and are therefore dependent on dietary sources to obtain this essential fatty acid. Currently, the richest source of dietary long-chain n-3 PUFA, eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3), are triacylglycerides extracted from rapidly declining marine resources. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans synthesizes a wide range of PUFA and possesses the only known example of an n-3 fatty acid desaturase enzyme in the animal kingdom. Transgenic mice expressing the C. elegans n-3 desaturase under the control of the lactation-induced goat β-casein mammary gland promoter were generated via pronuclear microinjection. Significant increases in n-3 PUFA, decreases in n-6 PUFA, and an overall decrease in the n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio were observed in the milk produced by transgenic mice. Neonate mice consuming milk from transgenic females accumulated increased levels of docosahexaenoic acid in their brains. This transgenic model may provide useful information to address some basic questions of neonatal nutrition, and demonstrates one of the steps that would be required to increase the n-3 PUFA content of milk and dairy products endogenously. Increasing the proportion of n-3 PUFA in milk fat would help to improve the nutritional composition of an important component of the North American diet.     

Survey of the fatty acid composition of retail milk in the United States including regional and seasonal variations

Consumers are increasingly aware that food components have the potential to influence human health maintenance and disease prevention, and dietary fatty acids (FA) have been of special interest. It has been 25 years since the last survey of US milk FA composition, and during this interval substantial changes in dairy rations have occurred, including increased use of total mixed rations and byproduct feeds as well as the routine use of lipid and FA supplements. Furthermore, analytical procedures have improved allowing greater detail in the routine analysis of FA, especially trans FA. Our objective was to survey US milk fat and determine its FA composition. We obtained samples of fluid milk from 56 milk processing plants across the US every 3 mo for one year to capture seasonal and geographical variations. Processing plants were selected based on the criteria that they represented 50% or more of the fluid milk produced in that area. An overall summary of the milk fat analysis indicated that saturated fatty acids comprised 63.7% of total milk FA with palmitic and stearic acids representing the majority (44.1 and 18.3% of total saturated fatty acids, respectively). Unsaturated fatty acids were 33.2% of total milk FA with oleic acid predominating (71.0% of total unsaturated fatty acids). These values are comparable to those of the previous survey in 1984, considering differences in analytical techniques. Trans FA represented 3.2% of total FA, with vaccenic acid being the major trans isomer (46.5% of total trans FA). Cis-9, trans-11 18:2 conjugated linoleic acid represented 0.55% total milk FA, and the major n-3 FA (linolenic acid, 18:3) composed 0.38%. Analyses for seasonal and regional effects indicated statistical differences for some FA, but these were minor from an overall human nutrition perspective as the FA profile for all samples were numerically similar. Overall, the present study provides a valuable database for current FA composition of US fluid milk, and results demonstrate that the milk fatty acid profile is remarkably consistent across geographic regions and seasons from the perspective of human dietary intake of milk fat.     

Case study: Comparison of milk composition from adjacent organic and conventional farms in the USA

A study of two adjacent dairy farms, one using conventional confined herd management and the other organic management, revealed significant differences in the fatty acid composition of the milk. Compared with conventional milk, organic milk had higher levels of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and α‐linolenic acid (the major omega‐3 fatty acid in milk), and less stearic and linoleic acid (the major omega‐6 fatty acid in milk) during the spring–summer grazing season. When discarding geography and weather as variables, organic milk appears to yield more CLA and α‐linolenic acid, which should be beneficial to health.     

Lipid Characteristics in Fresh and Broiled Loin and Round Steaks from Concentrate Fed and Pasture Grazed Steers

Broiling of loin and round steaks from concentrate-fed and pasture-grazed steers had no significant effects upon levels of intramuscular triglycerides or cholesterol when expressed on a freeze-dry basis. Broiling did cause increases in phospholipids and free fatty acids. Broiling did not influence fatty acid compositions of triglycerides, polar lipids and free fatty acids. Loin steaks contained more triglycerides and free fatty acids and less phospholipids and cholesterol than round steaks. Increases in intramuscular triglycerides were not accompanied by increases in cholesterol or phospholipids. Polyunsaturated/ saturated acid ratios and levels of linolenic acid, an n-3 acid, were highest in steaks from steers that had grazed pastures.     

Fatty acid content, vitamins and selenium in bulk tank milk from organic and conventional Swedish dairy herds during the indoor season

Fatty acids, vitamins and minerals in milk are important for the human consumer, the calf and the cow. Studies indicate that milk from organic and conventional dairy herds may differ in these aspects. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate whether there are differences in the fatty acid composition and concentration of vitamins and selenium in milk between organic and conventional herds in Sweden. Bulk tank milk was sampled in 18 organic and 19 conventional dairy herds on three occasions during the indoor season 2005-2006. Herd characteristics were collected by questionnaires and from the official milk recording scheme. Multivariable linear mixed models were used to evaluate the associations between milk composition and type of herd, while adjusting for potential confounders and the repeated observations within herd. In addition to management type, variables included in the initial models were housing type, milk fat content, herd size, average milk yield and time on pasture during summer. The median concentration of conjugated linoleic fatty acids (CLA) was 0·63% in organic compared with 0·48% in conventional herds, the content of total n-3 fatty acids was 1·44% and 1·04% in organic and conventional milk, respectively, and the content of total n-6 fatty acids was 2·72% and 2·20% in organic and conventional milk, respectively. The multivariable regression models indicated significantly higher concentrations of CLA, total n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in organic milk and a more desirable ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids, for the human consumer, in organic milk. The multivariable models did not demonstrate any differences in retinol, α-tocopherol, β-carotene or selenium concentrations between systems. Median concentrations of α-tocopherol were 0·80 μg/ml in organic and 0·88 μg/ml in conventional milk, while for β-carotene the median concentrations were 0·19 and 0·18 μg/ml, respectively; for retinol, the median concentration was 0·32 μg/ml in both groups; the median concentrations of selenium were 13·0 and 13·5 μg/kg, respectively, for organic and conventional systems.     

Dietary enrichment of milk and dairy products with n-3 fatty acids: A review

Milk and dairy products are important sources of nutrients in the human diet; however, they are also the main sources of saturated fatty acids (FAs) that can cause an increase in the risk of cardiometabolic and cardiovascular disease. Unfortunately, the n-3 FAs that are known for their health benefits are found in small amounts in normal ruminant milk fat and dairy products. Dietary supplementation with vegetable seeds or oils rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA) and grass-based feeding can enhance the content of n-3 FAs, particularly ALA, in milk and dairy products. Alternatively, ruminants are often supplemented with fish meal, fish oil and microalgae that are rich in the long-chain n−3 FAs eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. In this paper, the latest scientific studies regarding n−3 FA enrichment in milk and dairy products are reviewed, giving an overview of the effectiveness of the different supplementation approaches.     

Milk fatty acid composition and production performance of Danish Holstein and Danish Jersey cows fed different amounts of linseed and rapeseed

Fat supplements are used in diets for dairy cows to increase energy intake and milk production and the fatty acid composition of the feed affects milk fatty acid composition. A total of 74 Danish Holstein and 41 Danish Jersey cows were divided into 4 groups and the cows within each group were fed a mixed ration supplemented with 0, 3.5, 6.8, or 10.2% of dry matter of a linseed:rapeseed (1:3) mixture during lactation wk 6 to 30. Milk yield, fat, and lactose contents were not affected by treatments for Danish Holsteins, whereas these parameters increased when increased amounts of oilseeds were fed to Danish Jerseys. For both breeds, milk protein content decreased when increased amounts of oilseeds were fed. The milk fatty acid composition showed higher concentrations of saturated fatty acids and lower concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids in milk fat from Danish Jerseys compared with Danish Holsteins. Increased amounts of oilseeds in feed increased milk fat concentration of all C18 fatty acids except C18:2 n-6, whereas the content of C6 to C14, C11 to C17, and in particular, C16, decreased. This effect was more pronounced for Danish Holsteins than for Danish Jerseys. The apparent recovery of C18:2 n-6 and C18:3 n-3 decreased when increased amounts of oilseeds were fed; however, this was most likely due to increased amounts of fatty acid from feed used for other energy demands than milk production. It was concluded that up to 6.8% of oilseed supplementation can be fed without production problems and, in many cases, with positive production responses, including an improved milk fatty acid profile.     

Influence of dietary fish oil on conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids in milk fat from lactating dairy cows

Lactating cows were fed menhaden fish oil to elevate concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk. Twelve multiparous Holstein cows at 48+/-11 DIM were assigned randomly to a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square. Each treatment period was 35 d in length, with data collected d 15 to 35 of each period. On a dry matter (DM) basis, diets contained 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% of the respective concentrate mix. Fish oil was supplemented at 0, 1, 2, and 3% of ration DM. Linear decreases were observed for DM intake (28.8, 28.5, 23.4, and 20.4 kg/d) and milk fat (2.99, 2.79, 2.37, and 2.30%) for 0 to 3% dietary fish oil, respectively. Milk yield (31.7, 34.2, 32.3, and 27.4 kg/d) increased as dietary fish oil increased from 0 to 1% but decreased linearly from 1 to 3% dietary fish oil. Milk protein percentages (3.17, 3.19, 3.21, and 3.17) were similar for all treatments. When the 2% fish oil diet was fed, concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid in milk fat increased to 356% (to 2.2 g/ 100 g of total fatty acids) and 502% (to 6.1 g/100 g), respectively, of amounts when 0% fish oil was fed. There were no additional increases in these fatty acids when cows were fed 3% fish oil. The n-3 fatty acids increased from a trace to over 1 g/100 g of milk fatty acids, when the 3% fish oil diet was fed. Fish oil supplementation to diets of dairy cows increased the conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk.     

Effect of partial substitution of caprine milk for ovine milk,dry salting and cured scalding on lipolysis in Urfa cheeses

The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of partial substitution of caprine for ovine milk, dry salting and curd scalding on the free fatty acid (FFA) level of Urfa cheeses. At the end of storage, lauric and linoleic acids were lower in cheese made from milk where up to the 30% partial substitution of caprine milk for ovine milk was made. Dry salted cheeses had higher butyric, lauric, linoleic and linolenic acid levels, and lower palmitic acid levels than their scalded counterpart. A relative increase in short‐chain FFAs occurred during ripening. Palmitic and oleic acids were the most abundant FFAs in fresh and ripened Urfa cheeses.     

市售婴幼儿配方乳粉中脂肪酸组成分析

对市售的10种不同品牌婴幼儿配方乳粉中脂肪酸组成进行了检测及分析。结果表明:共检出脂肪酸24种,不同品牌乳粉的脂肪酸组成及含量差别很大,棕榈酸含量介于14. 77%与35. 72%之间,亚油酸含量最高达27. 07%,最低仅有4. 68%,7种产品可检出DHA、AA,均未检出EPA;除了1种产品的亚油酸及α-亚麻酸含量偏低,其余脂肪酸含量均符合国家标准,检测结果与母乳之间仍存有差异。婴幼儿配方乳粉的脂肪酸仍需要进行优化以接近母乳来满足婴幼儿的营养需求。     

Comparative aspects of milk fat synthesis

This general review attempts to capture the interest of nonspecialists, especially those whose main interest is the dairy cow, in the extraordinary diversity of milk fats synthesized and secreted by different mammalian species. The review compares differences in the gross proportions of fats in the milk of various species and discusses different strategies for providing the suckling young with sufficient energy as fat. Despite the constancy of the gross chemical composition of the milk fat globule and its membrane produced by mammals, there are striking differences among species in the fatty acid composition of milk triacylglycerols (triglycerides). The origins of the short-, medium-, and long-chain fatty acids of milk triacylglycerols are reviewed with emphasis on differences between ruminants and nonruminants. Because there appears to be less difference among mammals in the mechanisms of fatty acid desaturation, chain elongation, and esterification by the mammary gland, these topics are only briefly reviewed.