Practical feeding programs using soy protein as base

The U.S. has furnished billions of lb food commodities containing soy protein for use in feeding programs in the less developed countries. As a result of the low cost, excellent nutritional qualities and functional versatility of soy products, they have been used extensively as protein additives in a broad spectrum of foods for practical feeding programs. Soy flours are a major ingredient in blended foods, such as instant corn soy milk, corn soy blend, and wheat soy blend; and soy flours and grits have been used as protein fortificants in wheat, corn, sorghum, and oat products distributed overseas. Most recently, a new whey soy drink mix has been developed for use in preschool feeding programs and now is being introduced around the world. As more attention focuses on the nutritional requirements of feeding program beneficiaries and on the need for low cost sources of protein, it can be expected that uses for soy protein will expand and additional soy based foods will be added to the list of commodities used in practical feeding programs. One of 13 papers presented in the symposium, “Soy Protein,” at the AOCS Spring Meeting, Mexico City, April 1974.     

Authorizations and restrictions on soy protein in foods in the U.S.

The Food and Drug Administration makes the basic decisions on what materials will be permitted in U.S. foods. The U.S. Department of Agriculture then selects those items which it will allow in meats and poultry products. The Food and Drug Administration is in the process of developing definitions for soy products and issuing the regulatory controls over their uses. Care is being taken not to impose burdensome regulatory restrictions on a technology that is in a rapid state of development.     

Meat and dairy analogs from vegetable proteins

The enormous pressures for protein food products in the coming decades, brought on by world population increases, will be solved through the extension of traditional animal protein foods with vegetable proteins and through the development of food products based on vegetable proteins alone. Analogs of beef, fish, poultry and other traditional animal protein products, which are based solely on vegetable proteins, are an established food category, and are expected to increase market share. Dairy analogs based on vegetable cow’s milk and dairy desserts. Vegetable forms of cheese and other milk protein products are also expected to increase. Nutritional equivalence of vegetable protein products is fundamental to product design. Protein and fat content must be standardized. Vegetable proteins are blended to reach desirable protein quality. Analogs currently marketed are primarily blends of soy and wheat proteins containing lesser amounts of yeast and egg albumen. The products are fortified with vitamins and minerals to levels present in animal protein foods. Processed meat manufacturing facilities, which exist in most developed countries, can be readily adapted to produce meat analogs. The technology which has been developed to date is based on soy or soy/wheat combinations. The technology can readily be adapted to other vegetable proteins such as rapeseed, cotton-seed, sesame or sunflower. These protein sources, while in abundance in many countries, need process research which can refine them for human use. The vegetable proteins offer the world’s exploding population a virtually untapped resource for its burgeoning food requirements.     

Use of soy proteins in baked foods

Technology for the utilization of soy products in bakery foods is well established and reasonably simple. We can expect the functional properties and flavor of soy products to be continually improved through major research efforts in the soy industry. Large scale protein fortification programs will be forthcoming as the world population continues to grow, and economics dictate more and more efficient sources of nutrients. Before this will be realized, however, careful evaluations of the nutritional requirements and the technical, economic and political situations in a country will have to be made and the constraints removed before widespread use of fortified bakery foods in the commercial sector can be realized. In developed as well as developing countries, the near term constraints for usage of soy proteins in bakery products are represented by food regulations or laws which must be changed before the full nutritional and functional assets of soy proteins can be realized to the benefit of the baking industry.     

Food applications of corn germ protein products

Many convenience foods such as meat analogs, breakfast foods, and baked goods use ingredients prepared from cereal grains and their processed products. Among the most important new cereal protein products, corn germ protein products appear to have the greatest potential food markets.     

Technical problems and opportunities in using vegetable proteins in dairy products

The food processing industry is giving increased emphasis to the production and utilization of alternate protein isolate products as functional and nutritional ingredients in an expanding number of formulated food products. Alternate protein sources such as soy and other vegetable proteins offer additional flexibility in formulating foods due to their economics, availability, functionality and nutritional properties. This paper discusses needs for developing soy and vegetable protein isolates with improved flavor, color and functionality for producing simulated dairy foods. It also considers alternative technologies for incorporating soy and vegetable proteins into the formulation so that they may function properly for forming stable solutions, emulsions, foams and gels that resemble those in their natural dairy food counterparts.     

Use of vegetable protein in processed seafood products

In comparison to other muscle foods like red meats, utilization of vegetable protein products in seafood is limited, and can be considered to be in its infancy. The opportunities are not predicated entirely on the future. Opportunities exist today, and vegetable protein products such as soy can and will impact on the seafood market. The opportunities for soy protein products in seafood are and will be realized in terms of nutrition, functionality, and economics. The change in price of frozen fish paste caused by the influence of the 200-mile zones was 2 to 2.5 times in one year. In contrast, the price of soy protein products has not changed during the same period. Obviously, this price difference has an important impact on the demand for soy protein products. As the price of fish in Japan has risen, consumers have tended to avoid buying fish products, and there has been a trend toward buying animal products. Consequently, the use of textured soy proteins in these animal protein foods has also increased. Japan has a long and well developed tradition of eating soybean foods, and at the same time, Japan possesses a high level of scientific technology concerned with new soy protein foods. The whole nation, including the consumers, producers, academic societies and the government, is of the consensus that soybeans are a good food source whose consumption should be encouraged and increased. In spite of such favored conditions, utilization of soy protein foods in Japan has not really taken off even after almost 20 years of development. Reasons for the slow expansion of the market are many. However, the definite factor which decisively affects the increased use seems ultimately to be a balance between the quality and price of the products. In Japan the balance would become favorable to soy protein because of the limited fish resources as well as recent advances in the technology of soy protein foods. Several formulations for fish/soy products are presented.     

Requirements for foods containing soy protein in the food for peace program

Under the Food for Peace Program, whole grains, milled wheat flour, milled rice, soybean oil, soybean flour, nonfat dry milk, soyacontaining blended food supplements, and soya-fortified processed foods are provided by the U.S. to needy people abroad to alleviate malnutrition. These commodities are used in maternal/child health programs, school feeding, food for work projects and disaster relief. The wide diversity of nutritional requirements and traditional food preferences has led to development of nine soya-containing food types, which are used in the PL-480 Title II donation program as blended food supplements or fortified processed foods. Research studies have led to the development of product specifications. Blended food supplements include the standardized mixtures of corn-soya-milk (CSM), instant CSM, wheat-soy blend and whey-soy drink mix. These foods, developed to fulfill the nutritional requirements of preschool children, contain from 17.5 to 29.7% either toasted-defatted or equivalent full-fat soya flour, along with vitamins and minerals. In addition, 4–19% soya oil is added to improve caloric density. These products contain 19 or 20% minimum protein and 6 or 19% minimum fat content. Fortified processed foods include soya-fortified bulgur (SFB), soya-fortified bread wheat flour (SFWF), soya-fortified cornmeal (SFCM), soya-fortified sorghum grits (SFSG), and soya-fortified rolled oats (SFRO). These foods contain toasted soya flour, grits, or flakes added at 12–15% levels. Fortified foods are generally consumed by people other than infants.     

The U.K. legislative approach to the use of soy proteins in food

The food and drugs acts applicable within the U.K. provide a framework within which the sale of all foods is controlled. In particular the main clauses place responsibility for safety and avoidance of deception firmly on the manufacturer and seller of the food. The significance of compositional regulations, made under powers contained in the acts, is illustrated by the various meat product regulations and their relevance to the use of soy materials. Food labeling regulations also are discussed. The directions in which the laws may have to be revised to accommodate the introduction of new protein rich foods are outlined and the relevance to soy products is discussed.     

Soybean protein in human nutrition: An overview

The nutritional value of processed soy protein in human protein nutrition is reviewed on the basis of growth, nitrogen balance and metabolic studies in infants, children, adolescents and adults. When well processed soy products serve as the major or sole source of the protein intake, their protein value approaches or equals that of foods of animal origin, and they are fully capable of meeting the long term essential amino acid and protein needs of children and adults. The significance of the sulfur amino acid content of soy protein for practical human nutrition is also examined. For young children and adults, under conditions of normal usage of soy protein, it is concluded that methionine supplementation of good quality products is unnecessary and possibly undesirable. For feeding of the newborn, the limited data available suggest that supplementation of soy-based formulas with methionine may be beneficial. However, the appropriate level of supplementation is considerably less than that suggested from results obtained in rat feeding studies. At total protein intakes that approximate current dietary protein allowances, well processed soy protein products can replace meat and fish proteins without reducing the utilization of dietary nitrogen in adults, and they can serve as nutritionally valuable protein sources in cereal-based diets for child feeding. The value of long term studies concerned with tolerance to and acceptability of new soy protein products in adults is emphasized, and favorable results with two isolated soy protein products are described. The data indicate that properly processed soy protein foods are well tolerated and of good protein value for humans of all ages.     

Soy flour and grits for use in food products

Processing alternatives enable the soybean processor to manufacture soy flour products which vary in fat content, granulation and degree of heat treatment. By controlling these variables, the processor is able to regulate the nutritional value and functional properties of these products. The application of soy flour products is dependent upon their functional properties, nutritional value and low cost. Currently, the major markets for soy flour and grits are in pet foods and animal feeds, cereal based foods and ingredients, meat based foods, and as a substrate for refined protein products such as the textured vegetable proteins, soy protein concentrates, isolates and hydrolysates. These soy protein products are generally marketed as functional and nutritional substitutes for meat, milk and egg protein. For example, soy flour is a functional replacement for milk in many cereal-based foods, e.g., bread, and also enhances the nutritional value of the cereal protein by supplying lysine to the formulation. The United States government has pioneered the development and marketing of protein-enriched, cereal-based foods designed to combat worldwide starvation. The government has directly supported the research and development of corn and wheat-based food substrates supplemented with soy flour, and has purchased over one billion pounds of these products since 1966 for worldwide distribution. One of 21 papers presented at the Symposium, “Oilseed Processors Challenged by World Protein Need,” ISF-AOCS World Congress, Chicago, September 1970.     

Nutritional aspects in textured soy proteins

Textured soy protein products have found extensive use in pet foods and many human foods. They extend and complement meats in formulated foods. Numerous feeding tests with people and experimental animals show that biological values are high and protein efficiency ratios compare favorably with pure meat products. By careful processing of the textured soy products, high quality, safe, low cost protein food can be prepared. Textured soy proteins are an excellent example of man’s creative ability to engineer a supplementary food that is nutritious, palatable, and economical.     

Influence of two breakfast meals differing in glycemic load on satiety, hunger, and energy intake in preschool children

Background

Glycemic load (GL) is the product of glycemic index of a food and amount of available carbohydrate in that food divided by 100. GL represents quality and quantity of dietary carbohydrate. Little is known about the role of GL in hunger, satiety, and food intake in preschool children. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two breakfast meals differing in GL on hunger, satiety, and subsequent food intake at lunch in preschool children aged 4-6 y.

Methods

Twenty three subjects consumed low-GL (LGL) and high-GL (HGL) breakfast meals according to a randomized crossover design followed by an ad libitum lunch 4 h after consumption of breakfast. Children were asked to consume meals until they are full. Each treatment was repeated twice in non-consecutive days and data were averaged.

Results

Children in LGL group consumed significantly lower amounts of GL, total carbohydrate, energy, energy density, and dietary fiber and higher amounts of protein and fat at the breakfast compared to those in HGL group. Prior to lunch, children were hungrier in the HGL intervention group compared to the LGL intervention group (P < 0.03). However, no significant difference was observed between LGL and HGL intervention groups in the amount of food and energy consumed during lunch.

Conclusions

Decreased hunger in children prior to lunch in LGL group is likely due to higher protein and fat content of LGL breakfast. Diets that are low in GL can be recommended as part of healthy diet for preschool children.     

Use of soy proteins in Swedish foods

A positive action program has been instituted in Sweden. A new food law recognizing soy protein as a food ingredient and not an additive was obtained, a discriminatory tax was reduced by 75%, and the image of soy proteins was changed in newspapers and journals. Many soy-containing foods are now on the market as a result of these changes.     

Soy proteins for foods centering around soy sauce and tofu

In the Orient, soy proteins have been used for human consumption for centuries, during which various kinds of unique soy protein foods have been established. Some of these products, such as tofu, have a bland flavor, but there are also those products having a distinctive flavor and an aroma like fermented soy sauce. Both types are acceptable for worldwide populations. In earlier times, the consumption of these soy protein foods in the U.S. was mostly confined to Orientals. Recently, however, the koikuchi type of soy sauce has been consumed widely by non-Orientals through nationwide supermarkets. Annual production in the U.S. has reached more than 16,500 kl. Tofu has also become popular in the U.S. because of its bland flavor which enables it to be used in many dishes. Fermented soy sauce is completely different in the constituents of aroma and flavor from chemical soy sauce. Koikuchi shoyu is a typical Japanese type of fermented soy sauce characterized by a strong, appetizing aroma. The fermentation process consists of koji fermentation byAspergillus species and the subsequent brine fermentation, which contains lactic acid and alcoholic fermentations. Miso is a paste product produced through a similar fermentation. Tofu is a soy milk curd product made through a nonfermented process from soy milk.     

Soya products in meat,poultry and seafood

The soya protein industry has produced a wide variety of products with specific functionality properties to meet the targeted needs required by the food industry. It is important to recognize that certain of these soya protein products have and perform specific functions in these foods, such as texture forming, gelation, fat and water binding, and emulsification. They contribute to the nutritional and general overall eating quality. Also important is to recognize the limits of application of soya protein technology based on maintaining the traditional quality of the meat, poultry or seafood products. Today, unlike just a few years ago, soya protein products are able to contribute to, not just extend, high-quality meat, poultry and seafood products. The combination of resource efficiency of soya proteins and new technological advances is constantly expanding the long list of applications worldwide. The function of soy protein products in a variety of processed meat, poultry and seafood products is discussed. Paper presented by C.W. Kolar.     

Regulatory outlook on vegetable protein

Vegetable protein products are increasing in use in the U.S. diet, especially in substitutes for the traditional animal-protein foods: meat, seafood, poultry, eggs and cheeses. This is occurring despite an ample protein supply which permits U.S. consumers to eat about twice the recommended protein levels. Cost, dietary preferences and the functionality of vegetable proteins appear to assure further increases. In order to permit continued development of these products, while at the same time assuring their nutritional adequacy and providing informative labeling, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recently issued comprehensive tentative regulations. The regulations prescribe that the primary products be named as vegetable flour, vegetable protein concentrate and vegetable protein isolate when they contain less than 65%, 65% up to 90% and 90% or more protein respectively—except that gluten products may be referred to as such. When vegetable protein products are used as protein sources in whole or partial substitution for meat, seafood, poultry, eggs or cheese foods, the name of the substitute food must include the term vegetable protein product. Such substitute foods must be nutritionally equivalent to the original foods to avoid being called imitation. Imitation products must also be named to indicate the nature of the products, such as their use of vegetable protein ingredients. Nutritional equivalency is defined by nutrient profiles for six classes of foods: break-fast or lunch meats; seafood, poultry and other meats; eggs; cream cheeses; cottage cheeses; and natural cheeses. Fortification of substitute foods to meet nutritional equivalency requires their nutrition labeling. The FDA regulations also require that the PER of substitute foods containing vegetable protein products at more than 30% when combined with meat, seafood, poultry, eggs or cheeses shall be at least 100% that of casein. At 30% or less, the required PER is 80% that of casein. Specific USDA rules or FDA regulations such as the proposed standards for milk, cream or cheese substitutes take precedence over the general vegetable protein regulations. It is FDA intent to finalize the vegetable protein regulations as soon as possible.     

Entwicklung und Bedeutung pflanzlicher Proteine in der menschlichen Ernährung

Development and Importance of Vegetable Protein in Nutrition For several decades it has been a common practise to use concentrated vegetable fat and carbohydrate products in food processing, as well as institutional and house-hold food preparation. This is not true for vegetable protein products. Now, a new list of products are available, which have a wide protein range (50–90% crude protein) and which are ground, textured and spun and which have useful diversified functional properties. These products are finding a growing need and interests in the food industry. For 1975, the total U. S. consumption of soyprotein products reached about 170 000 t with an annual growth rate ranging from 3–25% for the individual types of products. The costs of the common soy protein products range from DM 1.50–5.30/kg crude protein for industrial uses in 1976. Comparing the costs for 100 g crude protein in soy products with other selected food items, which mainly cover the protein requirement, soy products range from 0.18–0.55 DM. This compares to a fraction of the protein costs of other foods. The principle functional properties, resulting from the protein dispersability and enzyme activity are: 1) 3–4 fold capacity to absorb moisture; 2) the emulsifying and stabilizing effects; 3) the improved fat-binding with meat products and 4) the reduced fat absorption with bakery products during frying. According to the “Ernährungsbericht 1976” of the DGE, growing importance has to be paid to an increased consumption of vegetable protein sources for better nutrition.     

Peanut protein: A versatile food ingredient

Peanut flour has been evaluated for use in a variety of food products as a replacement for animal source proteins. In breakfast cereals and snack foods, peanut flour blends well with cereal flours to yield products with excellent flavor, texture, and color. Peanut flour can be used to produce textured vegetable protein or can be used directly in ground meats to provide good moisture and fat binding characteristics. In bakery products, peanut flour can be used at levels up to 20% to provide protein supplementation without the astringent flavor of other oilseed flours.     

Basic principles underlying a legislative framework for vegetable protein

New food products appear on the market every day in one country or another. Provided they conform to the food laws currently in operation, there are no obstacles to the sale of such foods. The question is asked as to why special provisions are sought for or are needed to enable foods based on vegetable protein products to be marketed. The discussion given mainly centers on developed countries with “Western” type diets; developing countries and countries with traditional soy products are briefly mentioned. The four main viewpoints, of which account has to be taken, are outlined. These originate from the consumer, the manufacturer, the government regulatory and health authorities, and finally the enforcement authority where this is independent of the regulatory authority. Each of these contribute, in differing degree, to the questions of safety as regards health, nutritional adequacy, labeling and absence of deception, and the ability to enforce such regulations as may be needed. The extent to which a system of regulations formulated to meet the various safeguards asked for by one or other group still offers scope for commercially viable products is discussed. There may be conflict between the attitude of some manufacturers anxious for rapid commercial success linked with the measures which would satisfy their requirements and the long term development of vegetable protein products as an accepted sector of the food market. Indications are given of what might constitute a framework for legislation.